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Corpus albicans

The corpus albicans is a fibrous scar that results from the involution of the corpus luteum if fertilisation does not occur. When seen on ultrasound, it is a small, lobulated echogenic intra-ovarian lesion. History and etymology It is Latin for "whitening body", after the white appearance of ...

Corpus callosum

The corpus callosum is the largest of the commissural fibers, linking the cerebral cortex of the left and right cerebral hemispheres. It is the largest white matter tract in the brain. Summary located inferior to the cerebral cortices, and superior to the thalamus connects left and right cere...

Corpus luteum

The corpus luteum (plural: corpora lutea) is a temporary endocrine structure involved in ovulation and early pregnancy. During ovulation, the primary follicle forms the secondary follicle and subsequently the mature vesicular follicle. At ovulation the follicle ruptures expelling the ovum into...

Corpus striatum

The corpus striatum is a collective name given to the caudate nucleus and lentiform nucleus within the basal ganglia. History and etymology The term originates from the Latin "striatus", meaning "striped", referring to the caudatolenticar bridges of grey matter crossing the internal capsule fr...

Corrugator supercilii muscle

The corrugator supercilii muscles are two small, triangular muscles of facial expression, which contribute to movement of the eyebrows, including frowning. They are located deep to the frontal part of occipitofrontalis and orbicularis oculi muscles, with which they blend 2. Summary origin: med...

Cortical bone

The outer shell of compact bone is called cortical bone or cortex. Gross anatomy Cortical bone contains Haversian systems (osteons) which contain a central Haversian canal surrounded by osseous tissue in a concentric lamellar pattern. Two fibrovascular layers surround the cortical bone which...

Corticobulbar tract

The corticobulbar (or corticonuclear) tract originates primarily in Brodmann area 4 and exits at the brainstem to synapse on the lower motor neurons of the cranial nerves, except the facial nerve and hypoglossal nerve. It is involved in the movement of the face, head and neck 1.

Corticorubral tract

The corticorubral tract contains neurons that connect the primary motor and sensory areas to the red nucleus. The rubrospinal tract then descends through the spinal cord. The tract is thought to excite flexor muscles and inhibit extensor muscles. Gross anatomy Central connections The corti...

Corticospinal tract

The corticospinal tract (or pyramidal tract) is a descending white matter tract primarily concerned with motor function extending from the motor cortex down to synapse with motor neurons of the spinal cord in the anterior horns. Gross anatomy Central connections Corticospinal fibers are axon...

Costal cartilage

The costal cartilages form part of the thoracic cage and anterior chest wall. There are ten costal cartilages bilaterally, one for each of the corresponding 1st to 10th ribs, and each of the first seven ribs forms one of the seven costochondral joints. Costal cartilages 1-7 articulate with the ...

Costocervical trunk

The costocervical trunk is one of the branches of the second part of the subclavian artery. It arises from the posterior wall of the subclavian artery, posterior or medial to the anterior scalene muscle and courses posterosuperiorly across the suprapleural membrane where it divides into 2 branc...

Costochondral joint

The costochondral joints are the joints between each rib and its costal cartilage. They are primary cartilaginous joints. These joints represent the demarcation of the unossified and ossified part of the rib 1. The joint is held together by periosteum, with the lateral aspect of the costal ca...

Costoclavicular ligament

The costoclavicular ligament or rhomboid ligament is the major stabilizing factor of the sternoclavicular joint and is the axis of movement of the joint. Gross anatomy The costoclavicular ligament binds the inferior medial clavicle (via the rhomboid fossa) to the first costal cartilage and adj...

Costoclavicular space

The costoclavicular space is the anterior portion of the superior thoracic aperture, between the clavicle and first rib. The subclavian vessels and brachial plexus pass though the space related to the scalene muscles. Proximally, the plexus passes through the interscalene space, and distally thr...

Costovertebral joint

The costovertebral joint is an articulation between the ribs and the vertebral column. Gross Anatomy The ribs articulate with the thoracic vertebrae via two distinctly different joints: costovertebral joint - articulation between the head of the rib and the vertebral body costotransverse joi...

Costoxiphoid ligament

The costoxiphoid ligaments, also known as the chondroxiphoid ligaments, are inconstant fibrous structures joining the anterior and posterior surfaces of the xiphoid to the respective surfaces of the adjacent seventh and, occasionally, sixth costal cartilages.

Couinaud classification of hepatic segments

The Couinaud classification (pronounced kwee-NO) is currently the most widely used system to describe functional liver anatomy. It is the preferred anatomy classification system as it divides the liver into eight independent functional units (termed segments) rather than relying on the tradition...

Couinaud classification of hepatic segments (mnemonic)

Pauli et al published a "handy" way to remember the Couinaud classification of hepatic segments 1. Make a fist with your right hand. The fingers should be wrapped around the flexed thumb and the fist should face you. The segments are represented by the following: segment I: (caudate): the thum...

Coumadin ridge

A coumadin ridge, also called warfarin ridge or left lateral ridge, is a band-like embryological remnant in the left atrium between the left superior pulmonary vein and the left atrial appendage. It is considered an anatomical variant. The ridge is formed by the coalition of the left superior ...

Cranial foramina

The cranial foramina are the holes that exist in the skull to allow the passage of structures into and out of the cranium. Some clefts/fissures, which are not entirely surrounded by bone, and canals, which are longer than their diameter, are often included in this category. Most cranial foramin...

Cranial meninges

The cranial meninges (singular: meninx) surround the brain and are made up of three layers (from outermost to innermost): dura mater arachnoid mater pia mater The dura mater can also be known as the pachymeninx. The arachnoid mater and pia mater are collectively known as the leptomeninges 3....

Cranial nerves

The cranial nerves are the 12 paired sets of nerves that arise from the cerebrum or brainstem and leave the central nervous system through cranial foramina rather than through the spine. The cranial nerves are numbered one to twelve, always using the Roman numerals, I to XII. Cerebrum The firs...

Cranial nerves (mnemonic)

There are many cranial nerve mnemonics that can be memorable and rude/lewd. Either way, they can be helpful for remembering the names of the twelve cranial nerves, as well as remembering which nerves are sensory, motor, or both. Remembering cranial nerve names in order of CN I to CN XII: On ol...

Cranial vault

The cranial vault, also known as the skull vault, skullcap or calvaria, is the cranial space that encases and protects the brain together with the base of the skull (chondrocranium). The cranial vault and the base of skull together form the neurocranium. Gross anatomy The cranial vault consist...

Cremasteric artery

The cremasteric artery is a small branch of the inferior epigastric artery that enters the deep inguinal ring of the inguinal canal and supplies the layers of the spermatic cord and also the skin of the scrotum, including the cremaster muscle. History and etymology The word "cremaster" derives...

Cremaster muscle

The cremaster muscle is the thin fascial muscle of the spermatic cord made of skeletal muscle. It is also referred to as cremaster fascia or simply the cremaster. Its action is to retract the testes, important in thermoregulation and spermatogenesis. Gross anatomy It is derived from the inter...

Crests of Duret

The crests of Duret attach the most numerous superficial breast lobes by their summit to the superficial layer of fascia. The deepest crests connect the anterior lobes to the deep layer through the Cooper's ligament. Breast lobe groups about one hundred lobules separated by interlobular connect...

Cribriform plate

The cribriform plate is a sieve-like structure between the anterior cranial fossa and the nasal cavity. It is a part of ethmoid bone and supports the olfactory bulb, which lies in the olfactory fossa. It is perforated by foramina for the passage of the olfactory nerves and the anterior ethmoidal...

Cricoid cartilage

The cricoid cartilage is a ring-shaped structure that sits just below the thyroid cartilage, at the level of the C6 vertebra. It is the only complete cartilaginous ring of the whole airway. Gross anatomy The anterior portion is called the arch and the posterior quadrangular shaped portion is t...

Crista galli

The crista galli is a thick, midline, smooth triangular process arising from the superior surface of the ethmoid bone, projecting into the anterior cranial fossa. It separates the olfactory bulbs, which lie either side of it in the olfactory fossae of the cribriform plate. It serves as an anteri...

Crista terminalis

The crista terminalis is a smooth muscular ridge in the superior aspect of the right atrium, formed following resorption of the right valve of the sinus venosus. It represents the junction between the sinus venarum, the "smooth" portion of the right atrium derived from the embryologic sinus veno...

Critical zone in rotator cuff tendons

The critical zone of the rotator cuff is an area approximately 8-15 mm from the insertion of the rotator cuff tendons onto the greater tubercle of the humeral head, mainly within the supraspinatus tendon. This is a watershed zone between the anterior and posterior circumflex humeral, thoracoacro...

Crossed fused renal ectopia

Crossed fused renal ectopia refers to an anomaly where the kidneys are fused and located on the same side of the midline. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is around 1 out of 1000 births 1. There is a recognized male predilection with a 2:1 male to female ratio. More than 90% of crossed ren...

Crossed renal ectopia

Crossed renal ectopia is said to be present when the kidney is seen in the opposite retroperitoneal space. It is more common for the left kidney to be ectopically located on the right side. More than 85% of these get fused resulting in crossed fused renal ectopia. Less than 15% cases are non-fus...

Cruciate ligament of the atlas

The cruciate ligament of the atlas (also known as the cruciform ligament) is an important ligamentous complex that holds the posterior dens of C2 in articulation at the median atlantoaxial joint. It lies behind a large synovial bursa (surrounded by loose fibrous capsule) and consists of two band...

Crus (disambiguation)

A crus (plural: crura) is an anatomical term used for a structure which resembles a leg. crus (auricle) crus (cerebrum) crus (clitoris) crus (diaphragm) crus (fornix) crus (heart) crus (incus) crus (internal capsule) crus (nose) crus (penis) crus (semicircular duct) crus (stapes) cr...

Crystalline lens

The crystalline lens (or simply, the lens, plural: lenses) is in the ocular globe between the posterior chamber and the vitreous body. It is transparent and biconvex in morphology, and aids the focusing of light onto the retina. Gross anatomy Location The lens lies in the globe at the poster...

CT angiography of the splanchnic vessels

Multi-slice CT angiography of the splanchnic vessels is a powerful minimally invasive technique for evaluation of the splanchnic vascular system. Technique The actual procedure will vary depending on institutional protocol/guidelines but below is a typical description 2, 4: patient receives...

CT cerebral venography

CT cerebral venography (also known as a CTV head) is a contrast enhanced examination with an acquisition delay providing an accurate detailed depiction of the cerebral venous system. NB: This article is intended to outline some general principles of protocol design. The specifics will vary dep...

Cubital fossa

The cubital fossa (a.k.a. antecubital fossa) (plural: fossae) is an inverted triangular space that forms the transition between the arm and the forearm. It is located anterior to the elbow joint. The terms cubital/antecubital fossa are also used in surface anatomy for the skin overlying this re...

Cubital tunnel

The cubital tunnel is a space through which the ulnar nerve passes posterior to the medial epicondyle of the humerus. Gross anatomy Boundaries roof cubital tunnel retinaculum (also known as ligament or band of Osborne), extends from the olecranon to the medial epicondyle anconeus epitrochl...

Cuboid

The cuboid bone is one of the tarsal bones located lateral to the lateral cuneiform bone and has an important articulation with the calcaneus. Gross anatomy Osteology The cuboid is a wedge shaped bone, being widest at its medial edge and narrow at its lateral edge. It has three main articular...

Cuneate fasciculus

The cuneate fasciculus, also known as the fasciculus cuneatus (plural: fasciculi cuneati) or column of Burdach, represents the lateral portion of the dorsal columns and carries input from between and including C1 and T6 1. Function The cuneate fasciculus is responsible for transmitting vibrat...

Cuneiform cartilage

The cuneiform cartilage is a small, paired cartilage which resides in the aryepiglottic fold. It takes the form of a club-like nodule, visible as an elevation beneath the mucosa (the cuneiform tubercle) anterosuperior to the corniculate cartilages. History and etymology The word cuneiform deri...

Cuneus

The cuneus (plural: cunei) is a wedge-shaped region on the medial surface of the occipital lobe. Gross anatomy Relations Anterosuperiorly the parieto-occipital sulcus separates the cuneus from the precuneus of the parietal lobe. Posteroinferiorly the cuneus abuts the calcarine sulcus which s...

Cyamella

A cyamella is a rare sesamoid bone that exists as a normal variant within the popliteus tendon, characteristically located at the lateral aspect of the distal femur in the popliteal groove. Cyamella is best seen on the AP view of plain radiograph as opposed to fabella, which is best appreciated...

Cystic artery

The cystic artery represents the main blood supply to the gallbladder. It most commonly arises from the right hepatic artery within Calots triangle 1. Gross anatomy The cystic artery typically passes posterior to the cystic duct to reach the neck of the gallbladder. At this point, it gives off...

Cystic duct

The cystic duct connects the neck of the gallbladder to the common hepatic duct (CHD), draining bile to and from the biliary tree. Gross anatomy The confluence of the cystic duct and the common hepatic duct forms the common bile duct (CBD). The cystic duct is approximately 2-3 cm long and 2-3 ...

Cystic lymph node of Lund

The cystic lymph node of Lund (also known as the Calot or Mascagni node) is the sentinel node for the gallbladder, and one of the structures in Calot triangle. It lies in close proximity to the cystic artery and is one of the structures removed during cholecystectomy. History and etymology The...

Danger space

The danger space is a deep compartment of the head and neck located behind the true retropharyngeal space, extending from the skull base to the mediastinum. Terminology The danger space has no specific contents apart from a small amount of loose fatty connective tissue and is thus usually indi...

Dartos muscle

The dartos muscle is the thin rugated fascial muscle of the scrotum made of smooth muscle. Hence it is also referred to as dartos fascia or simply the dartos. It forms from the subcutaneous tissue of the scrotum and base of the penis and attaches to the scrotal skin and fibrous midline septum be...

Deep auricular artery

The deep auricular artery is the first named branch of the maxillary artery and passes through the bony or cartilaginous wall of the external acoustic meatus to supply the skin of that canal and part of the tympanic membrane. It can sometimes contribute a small branch to the arterial supply of t...

Deep brachial artery

The deep brachial artery or profunda brachii artery is a large branch of the brachial artery, located in the arm. Summary origin: brachial artery location: posterior aspect of the arm supply: triceps brachii main branches: middle collateral and radial collateral arteries Gross anatomy Ori...

Deep Bursae

Deep bursae are those bursae that are located deep to the fibrous fascia and are normally located between muscles or muscle and bone. These bursae form in utero alongside synovial joint formation 1. In contrast, superfical bursae are located superficial to the fibrous fascia.

Deep cerebral veins

The deep cerebral veins drain the deep white matter and grey matter that surround the basal cisterns and ventricular system. The deep veins are responsible for the outflow of approximately the inner 80% of the hemisphere. They provide useful landmarks for skull base and intraventricular surgery ...

Deep cervical fascia

The deep cervical fascia consists of three separate but related fascial layers that encircle structures in the neck and allow anatomic compartmentalisation into the deep spaces of the head and neck. Each layer contributes to the carotid sheath. See the separate articles for further details: sup...

Deep circumflex iliac artery

The deep circumflex iliac artery arises from the external iliac artery. Gross anatomy origin: lateral aspect of the external iliac artery above the inguinal ligament, almost opposite to the inferior epigastric artery course: travels superiorly parallel to the inguinal ligament towards the ant...

Deep femoral vein

The deep femoral vein or the profunda femoris vein lies anterior to its artery, and receives tributaries corresponding to the branches of the artery. Through these tributaries it connects distally with the popliteal and proximally with the inferior gluteal veins. It sometimes drains the medial a...

Deep inguinal lymph nodes

The deep inguinal lymph nodes (often shortened to the deep inguinal nodes) form a subgroup of the inguinal lymph node group, and are located within the femoral sheath, medial to the femoral vein. They receive afferent lymphatic drainage from the deep lymphatics of the distal lower extremity and ...

Deep layer of the deep cervical fascia

The deep layer of the deep cervical fascia is one of the three layers of the deep cervical fascia. It encases the paravertebral muscles and forms the perivertebral space. It consists of the perivertebral fascia (the anterior part of which is called the prevertebral fascia) and alar fascia 1-3. ...

Deep perineal pouch

The deep perineal pouch is an anatomic space superior (deep) to the perineal membrane in the urogenital triangle of the perineum, anterior to the transverse line between the ischial tuberosities. Gross anatomy The deep perineal pouch is above (deep to) the perineal membrane in the urogenital t...

Deep peroneal nerve

The deep peroneal (fibular) nerve is one of two terminal branches of the common peroneal nerve. Summary origin: the terminal branch of common peroneal nerve in the lateral compartment of the leg course: passes into the anterior compartment of the leg, where it courses inferiorly into the dors...

Deep petrosal nerve

The deep petrosal nerve transmits post-ganglionic sympathetic fibers from the internal carotid plexus to the Vidian nerve on its way to the pterygopalatine ganglion. Gross anatomy The nerve begins at the internal carotid plexus and runs alongside the lateral aspect of the internal carotid arte...

Deep posterior compartment of the leg

The deep posterior compartment of the leg is one of the four compartments in the leg between the knee and foot. Muscles within this compartment primarily produce ankle plantarflexion and toe flexion, with exception of the popliteus which acts on the knee. Of the two posterior compartments, the d...

Deep spaces of the head and neck

The deep spaces of the head and neck refer to compartments delimited by the deep cervical fascia. While these concepts overlap with traditional anatomical description, their existence highlights the importance of fascia in confining various pathologies. A knowledge of these spaces not only allo...

Deep temporal arteries

The deep temporal arteries (anterior, middle and posterior) are branches from the second part of the maxillary artery. They ascend between the temporalis muscle and the pericranium supplying the overlying muscle. The anterior branch communicates with the lacrimal artery by means of small branch...

Deep temporal nerves

The deep temporal nerves are a pair of motor branches of the anterior division of the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve. It should not be confused with the temporal branch of the facial nerve. Gross anatomy The two deep temporal nerves divide off the anterior division and course abov...

Default mode network

The default mode network (DMN), is a group of specific brain regions that are functionally-connected. The regions become active in the resting state (not doing any active task), and inactive when someone is engaged in any attention-demanding tasks 1; this phenomenon has been termed task-induced ...

Delphian lymph node

The Delphian (prelaryngeal/precricoid) lymph node (often shortened to Delphian node) is one of the cervical lymph node groups that comprise level VI cervical lymph nodes and is not routinely excised in radical neck dissections. Gross anatomy It is located between the cricothyroid muscles, abov...

Deltoid ligament of the ankle

The complex of the medial collateral ligaments of the ankle joint is collectively called deltoid ligament. It attaches the medial malleolus to multiple tarsal bones. Gross anatomy The ligament is composed of two layers. The superficial layer has variable attachments and crosses two joints whil...

Deltoid muscle

The deltoid muscle (also known as deltoideus muscle) is the largest of the shoulder muscles. The muscle is composed of three heads (clavicular, acromial and spinous), although electromyography suggests that there are at least seven control regions that could act independently 1. Summary origin...

Deltopectoral groove

The deltopectoral groove is located between the superolateral aspect of the pectoral region and the deltoid muscle. It runs obliquely from superomedial to inferolateral and contains the cephalic vein which at the upper margin of the groove dives deep to pierce the clavipectoral fascia and enter ...

Dentate gyrus

The dentate gyrus is located in the mesial temporal lobe and forms part of the hippocampal formation, along with the hippocampus proper and subiculum. The dentate gyrus receives fibers from the entorhinal cortex via the perforant path and projects fibers to the CA3 portion of the hippocampus. ...

Dentate nucleus

The dentate nucleus is the largest and most lateral of the cerebellar nuclei, located medially within each cerebellar hemisphere, just posterolateral to the fourth ventricle 1. It is part of the triangle of Guillain and Mollaret, connected to the contralateral red nucleus via the superior cere...

Denticulate ligaments

The denticulate ligaments are bilateral triangular lateral extensions of pia mater that anchor the spinal cord to the dura mater. They are formed by pia mater of the spinal cord coursing in-between the dorsal and ventral nerve roots bilaterally. They function to provide stability to the spinal ...

Depressor anguli oris muscle

The depressor anguli oris muscle (also known as the triangularis muscle) is one of the muscles of facial expression. Summary origin: oblique line of the mandible insertion: angle of the mouth superficial fibers from both sides merge to form the transversus menti innervation: facial nerve...

Depressor septi nasalis muscle

The depressor septi nasalis muscles (DSN) (also known as the depressor septi nasi muscles) are paired muscles of the nose, a subset of the muscles of facial expression, which depress the nose. Summary origin: maxilla insertion: nasal septum, medial crura, membranous septum innervation: facia...

Descending aorta

The descending aorta is the continuation of the aortic arch in the posterior mediastinum. Gross anatomy The descending aorta commences at the level of the fourth thoracic vertebra body, on its left, in the plane of Ludwig as the continuation of the aortic arch. It descends in the posterior med...

Descending branch of the lateral circumflex femoral artery

The descending branch of the lateral circumflex femoral artery descends from the lateral aspect of the femoral neck and extends as far as the knee where it provides blood to the patellar network (the complex arterial anastomosis around the knee). Summary origin: lateral circumflex femoral arte...

Descending colon

The descending colon is the continuation of the transverse colon after the left colic flexure, where the colon loses its mesentery. Gross anatomy The descending colon measures up to 25 cm in length and is secondarily retroperitoneal. It descends down attached to the left posterior abdominal w...

Descending geniculate artery

The descending geniculate artery arises from the distal portion of the superficial femoral artery before it becomes the popliteal artery. Along with other arterial branches, it provides blood to the patella network and the knee. Summary origin: superficial femoral artery supply: patella netwo...

Determination of atrial situs

Atrial situs refers to the relative position of the cardiac atria in relation to abdominal viscera and the midline. Pathology Identification of atrial situs is an important initial step in the antenatal and postnatal diagnosis of cardiac structural and situs anomalies. Radiographic features ...

Detrusor muscle

The detrusor muscle (or detrusor urinae muscle)is the smooth muscle component of the urinary bladder and facilitates contraction of the bladder wall during micturition. Gross anatomy Forms the smooth muscle component of the bladder wall. The urothelial lining overlies it within the bladder cav...

Developmental anomalies of the kidney and ureter

Developmental anomalies of the kidneys and ureters are numerous and not only potentially render image interpretation confusing but also, in many instances, make the kidneys more prone to pathology: number renal agenesis supernumerary kidney fusion horseshoe kidney: most common cross fused ...

Diagonal branches of the left anterior descending artery

Diagonal branches of the left anterior descending coronary artery supply blood flow to the anterior and anterolateral walls of the left ventricle. There are usually denoted as D1, D2, D3, etc. There are termed "diagonal" due to them branching from their parent vessel at acute angles. They ext...

Diaphragm

The diaphragm is the dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity, enclosing the inferior thoracic aperture. Gross anatomy The muscular fibers of the diaphragm originate around the circumference of the inferior thorax and converge to a common insertion point ...

Diaphragma sellae

The diaphragma sellae is one of the folds (or reflections) of the dura mater. It covers the sella turcica and forms the roof over the pituitary fossa 1. Gross anatomy The diaphragma sellae consists of two horizontal leaves of dura mater on the sphenoid bone. It extends from the tuberculum sell...

Diaphragmatic apertures

The diaphragmatic apertures are a series of apertures that permit the passage of structures between the thoracic and abdominal cavities. There are three main apertures: aortic hiatus (T12) (not a true aperture) esophageal hiatus (T10) vena caval foramen (T8) The vertebral levels of these ape...

Diaphragmatic apertures (mnemonic)

A useful mnemonic to remember the thoracic spinal levels at which the three major structures pass through the diaphragmatic apertures is: I 8 10 eggs at 12 - where 8 is a homophone for 'ate' and the 'e' in eggs is for the US spelling of esophagus Mnemonic I 8: inferior vena cava at T8 10 eg...

Diaphysis

The diaphyses (singular: diaphysis), sometimes colloquially called the shafts, are the main portions of a long bone (a bone that is longer than it is wide) and provide most of their length. The diaphysis has a tubular composition with a hard outer section of hard cortical bone and a central po...

Diarthroses

Diarthroses are a functional class of joint that are freely mobile. All synovial joints are considered diathroses. See also synarthroses amphiarthroses

Diencephalon

The diencephalon is connected above and in front with the cerebral hemispheres; behind with the mid-brain. Its upper surface is concealed by the corpus callosum, and is covered by a fold of pia mater, named the tela choroidea of the third ventricle; inferiorly it reaches to the base of the brain...

Difference in vertical mid-vertical angle (lumbar spine)

The difference in vertical mid-vertical angle is the difference in the vertical mid-vertebral angle (VMVA) between the caudal segment angle and the adjacent cephalad segment angle of the three most caudal segments of the lumbar spine as measured on a mid-sagittal MRI or a lateral radiograph. Ra...

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