Articles
Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.
473 results found
Article
Clothing artifact
Clothing artifacts, like jewelry artifacts, are a regular feature on imaging examinations, especially plain radiographs, but in general are recognized for what they are, either at the time the image is taken by the radiographer, or later by the reporting radiologist. The radiographer will often ...
Article
Coarse trabecular pattern in bone (differentials)
Coarse trabecular bones can result from a number of causes. They include:
Paget disease (bone)
osteoporosis
osteomalacia
rickets
hemaglobinopathies, e.g. thalassemia
Gaucher's disease
hyperparathyroidism
See also
Coarse trabecular pattern in bone (mnemonic)
Article
Cobb angle
The Cobb angle is the most widely used measurement to quantify the magnitude of spinal deformities, especially in the case of scoliosis, on plain radiographs. Scoliosis is defined as a lateral spinal curvature with a Cobb angle of >10° 4. A Cobb angle can also aid kyphosis or lordosis assessment...
Article
Cognitive bias in diagnostic radiology
Cognitive biases have a complex and significant impact on the perception of examinations within diagnostic radiology, with the clear and present danger of diagnostic errors. The following are some of the more common cognitive biases that can affect day-to-day decision making 1.
Anchoring bias
...
Article
Complications of sleeve gastrectomy
Complications of sleeve gastrectomy are often evaluated by imaging. For details about the surgical procedure, please see the parental article on sleeve gastrectomy.
Postoperative complications can be classified by etiology or temporality.
Early complications
staple line leakage
clinical pr...
Article
Computed tomographic (CT) colonography
Computed tomographic (CT) colonography, also called CTC, virtual colonoscopy (VC) or CT pneumocolon, is a powerful minimally invasive technique for colorectal cancer screening.
Indications
screening test for colorectal carcinoma
colon evaluation after incomplete or unsuccessful conventional c...
Article
Computed tomographic (CT) gastrography
Computed tomographic (CT) gastrography, also called virtual gastroscopy (VG), is a noninvasive procedure for the detection of gastric abnormalities.
Advantages
rapid and noninvasive exam
offers information about local tumor invasion, lymph node and distant metastasis in cases of gastric cance...
Article
Computed tomography of the chest
Computed tomography (CT) of the chest is a cross-sectional evaluation of the heart, airways, lungs, mediastinum, and associated bones and soft tissues.
Two key methods of image acquisition include:
standard CT with 5 mm slice thickness for mediastinum and gross evaluation of lungs
high-resolu...
Article
Computed tomography texture analysis
Computed tomography texture analysis (or CTTA) is a method to obtain new useful biomarkers that provide objective and quantitative assessment of tumor heterogeneity by analyzing the differences and patterns within the pixel values of an image. CTs can be worked with as a matrix of numbers, corre...
Article
Concurrent suprasellar and pineal region lesions (differential)
Concurrent suprasellar and pineal region lesions have a relatively short differential to be considered, including:
germinoma
other germ cell tumors
choriocarcinoma
embryonal cell carcinoma
yolk sac tumor (endodermal sinus tumor)
primary CNS lymphoma
cerebral metastasis
quadrilateral ret...
Article
Conditions involving the nipple-areolar complex
The nipple areolar complex is a major anatomic landmark of the breast. It may be affected by variation in its embryological development, breast maturation and also by other benign and malignant conditions.
Variant anatomy
amazia
polythelia
nipple retraction or inversion
enlarged nipple
Ben...
Article
Congenital heart disease chest x-ray (an approach)
With the advent of echocardiography, and cardiac CT and MRI, the role of chest x-rays in evaluating congenital heart disease has been largely been relegated to one of historical and academic interest, although they continue to crop up in radiology exams. In most instances a definite diagnosis ca...
Article
Congenital heart disease in echocardiography (an approach)
The diagnosis of congenital heart disease in echocardiography is outside the scope of basic echocardiography, however, several common features may be recognized at the point of care which allow for initial stablization and management before a complete echocardiography exam may be performed.
In ...
Article
Coracoclavicular distance
The coracoclavicular (CC) distance is an indicator of the integrity of the coracoclavicular (CC) ligament.
Measurement
The CC distance is assessed on frontal radiography of the shoulder or clavicle or the coronal projection of a CT or MRI as the distance between the superior cortex of the cora...
Article
Coracohumeral interval
The coracohumeral interval is usually measured on axial or oblique sagittal CT or MRI and normally measures between 7-11 mm. A measurement <6 mm is always considered abnormal 1.
Article
Coronal balance
Coronal balance is one of the features that needs to be assessed on long spine radiographs obtained for spinal deformity, particularly scoliosis. It measures whether or not the upper spine is located over the midline (normal) or off to one side.
Measurement
To assess coronal balance, a vertic...
Article
Coronary Artery Disease - Reporting and Data System
The Coronary Artery Disease - Reporting and Data System (CAD-RADS) is a standardized findings communication method and clinical decision aid relevant to coronary CT angiography. The system was created by a collaboration of the Society for Cardiovascular Computed Tomography (SCCT), American Colle...
Article
Coxa magna
Coxa magna is the asymmetrical, circumferential enlargement and deformation of the femoral head and neck. Definitions in the literature vary but enlargement with asymmetry >10% in size is a reasonable cut-off for diagnosis 1.
Pathology
Etiology
Legg-Calve-Perthes disease
transient synovitis...
Article
Coxa profunda
Coxa profunda refers to a deep acetabular socket. On pelvis x-rays it is seen as the acetabular fossa being medial to the ilioischial line. It should be differentiated from protrusio acetabuli, where the femoral head is seen additionally medial to the ilioischial (Kohler's) line. Coxa profunda i...
Article
Crohn disease vs ulcerative colitis
Due to the overlap in the clinical presentation of Crohn disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), imaging often has a role to play in distinguishing the two. Distinguishing features include:
bowel involved
CD: small bowel 70-80%, only 15-20% have only colonic involvement
UC: rectal involveme...
Article
CT angiography of the cerebral arteries (technique)
CT angiography of the cerebral arteries (also known as a CTA carotids or an arch to vertex angiogram) is a noninvasive technique allows visualization of the internal and external carotid arteries and vertebral arteries and can include just the intracranial compartment or also extend down to the ...
Article
CT cisternography
Computed tomography (CT) cisternography is an imaging technique used to diagnose CSF rhinorrhea or CSF otorrhea (CSF leaks), as CT allows the assessment of the bones of the base of the skull.
Procedure
pre-contrast CT is performed with thin slices
3-10 mL of an iodinated non-ionic low-osmola...
Article
CT colonography - pitfalls
The interpretation of CT colonography can sometimes be difficult because of pitfalls, which may be a source of false negative and false positive findings. When suboptimal CT colonography techniques are applied, the number and severity of interpretive pitfalls can rapidly multiply. However, when ...
Article
CT cystography
CT cystography is a variation of the traditional fluoroscopic cystogram. Instead of anterograde opacification of the urinary collecting system (as with CT urography), contrast is instilled retrograde into the patient's bladder, and then the pelvis is imaged with CT.
Indications
suspected bladd...
Article
CT enterography
Computed tomographic (CT) enterography is a non-invasive technique for the diagnosis of small bowel disorders.
Indications
CT enterography, similarly to MRI enterography, is most commonly used to evaluate patients with Crohn disease where it is used for assessment of the primary disease and an...
Article
CT head (an approach)
The approach taken to interpreting a CT scan of the head is no doubt different depending on the circumstances and the reading clinician, however, most radiologists will go through the same steps, although order may vary. What follows is merely a suggested approach to interpreting a CT of the hea...
Article
CT head (subdural window)
The subdural (blood) window can be used when reviewing a CT brain as it makes intracranial hemorrhage more conspicuous, and may help in the detection of thin acute subdural hematomas that are against the calvaria that are similar density to adjacent bone. It is a wider setting than the standard ...
Article
CT liver volumetry in living donor liver transplantation (approach)
CT liver volumetry in living donor liver transplantation is essential imaging studies in preoperative assessment.
Liver volumetry is performed for the donor liver to calculate the graft volume and remnant liver volume. Preoperative measurement of liver volume is important to avoid graft mismatc...
Article
CT perfusion in ischemic stroke
CT perfusion in ischemic stroke has become established in most centers with stroke services as an important adjunct, along with CT angiography (CTA), to conventional unenhanced CT brain imaging.
It enables differentiation of salvageable ischemic brain tissue (the penumbra) from the irrevocably ...
Article
CT peritoneography
CT peritoneography is an examination used to assess difficulties with peritoneal dialysis.
Indications
Recurrent peritonitis with difficulty with fluid exchange, abdominal wall or genital soft tissue edema, localized bulging of the abdomen, and poor ultrafiltration.
Technique
Before perform...
Article
CT polytrauma (approach)
Below is an approach used for the "primary survey" of a CT polytrauma/multitrauma (also called trauma CT or whole body CT), often performed at the CT console with the patient still on the CT table. It allows rapid communication of significant findings to the trauma team as well as the decision ...
Article
CVC position on chest x-ray (summary)
This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists
Chest x-ray CVC (central venous catheter) position should be assessed following initial placement and on subsequent radiographs.
Reference article
This is a summary article; for a more in-depth reference article see centr...
Article
Cystography
Cystography is a fluoroscopic study that images the bladder. It is similar to a voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG), and the difference between the studies is primarily one of emphasis; a cystogram focuses on the bladder and a VCUG focuses on the posterior urethra. The study has been adapted to CT a...
Article
Deductive echocardiography
Deductive echocardiography is a step-by-step approach in diagnosing and differentiating congenital heart disease.
Parameters assessed
position of heart
levocardia
dextrocardia
visceroatrial situs
solitus
inversus
ambiguus
ventricular loop
D-loop
L-loop
conotruncus
normal
transpose...
Article
Deep brain ultrasound therapy
Deep brain ultrasound (DBUS) therapy is a form of precision medicine using a technique based on the principle of high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU), also referred to as focused ultrasound surgery (FUS).
Technique
The method combines two main components 1:
guidance component
MRI of the ...
Article
Deep endometriosis (transvaginal ultrasound)
Transvaginal ultrasound (TV) for deep endometriosis is a specialized ultrasound technique used for the detection of deep endometriosis (DE). It differs from a traditional pelvic ultrasound in that the scan is extended beyond the uterus and ovaries to assess the anterior and posterior pelvic comp...
Article
Deepest vertical pocket method
The deepest (maximal) vertical pocket (DVP) depth is considered a reliable method for assessing amniotic fluid volume on ultrasound 1,2. It is performed by assessing a pocket of a maximal depth of amniotic fluid which is free of an umbilical cord and fetal parts.
The usually accepted values are...
Article
Densitometric vertebral fracture assessment
Densitometric vertebral fracture assessment (VFA) is an image of the lumbar and thoracic spine acquired on dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scanners, for the purpose of diagnosing osteoporotic vertebral fractures.
Terminology
The technique is available on DXA scanners under a variety of...
Article
Denver criteria for blunt cerebrovascular injury
The Denver criteria are a set of screening criteria used to determine when CT angiography of the neck is indicated to detect blunt cerebrovascular injury (BCVI) in trauma patients.
Screening criteria
The Denver criteria were initially developed in 1996 1, modified in 2005 to limit the types o...
Article
Describing a bone lesion
Describing a bone lesion is an essential skill for the radiologist, used to form an accurate differential diagnosis for neoplastic entities, and occasionally non-neoplastic. In addition to patient demographics, the radiographic features of a bone lesion are often the primary determinant of non-h...
Article
Describing a fracture (an approach)
Describing a fracture is a basic requirement when making an assessment of a plain radiograph. There are many ways to approach the assessment of the radiograph; this is just one approach.
I: Describe the radiograph
What radiograph (or radiographs) are you looking at? Check the who, what, why, w...
Article
Determination of atrial situs
Atrial situs refers to the relative position of the cardiac atria in relation to abdominal viscera and the midline.
Pathology
Identification of atrial situs is an important initial step in the antenatal and postnatal diagnosis of cardiac structural and situs anomalies.
Radiographic features
...
Article
Diagnostic HRCT criteria for usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) pattern - Fleischner society guideline (2018)
In 2018, the Fleischner Society provided updated diagnostic HRCT criteria for usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) pattern based on literature review and the expert opinion of members. As a part of this white paper, diagnostic HRCT criteria for usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) pattern were updat...
Article
Diastolic dysfunction assessment (echocardiography)
According to the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging, diastolic dysfunction assessment on echocardiography is divided into two different groups based on left ventricular systolic function.
Normal left ventricular systolic function
There ...
Article
Diastolic dysfunction (point of care ultrasound)
Assessment for diastolic dysfunction is an advanced application of point-of-care ultrasonography, most commonly used as a supplemental non-invasive estimate of left atrial pressure in hemodynamically complex patients 1. Of note, this article will discuss the simplified, binary approach used in c...
Article
Diffuse pulmonary nodules
Diffuse pulmonary nodules are usually seen as multiple pulmonary nodular opacifications on a HRCT chest scan. They can signify disease processes affecting either the interstitium or the airspace. They can range from a few millimeters to up to 1 cm and when very small and numerous there can be so...
Article
Diffuse pulmonary nodules (differential diagnosis)
A number of differentials must be kept in mind while approaching diffuse or multiple pulmonary nodules. Interpretation is easier if nodules are the only abnormality.
Differential diagnosis
These differentials can be narrowed down based on several criteria:
Based on appearance
miliary nodule...
Article
Digastric line
The digastric line, also known as the biventer line, has been described and used to evaluate basilar invagination on frontal skull plain film and coronal CT images.
The digastric line is drawn between right and left digastric grooves, which are located medial to the mastoid apices. These are co...
Article
Dolan's lines
Dolan's lines are the collective name given to three lines described by Dolan and Jacoby 1 that aid in evaluating for maxillofacial fractures on an occipitomental skull radiograph. They are usually used as an adjunct to McGrigor-Campbell lines.
orbital line traces the inner margins of the later...
Article
Edge of film error
Edge of film errors, also known as corner of film errors, are a classical perceptual error in radiology where a pertinent finding, whether incidental or not, is at the margin or edge of the image. It is now used for all modalities, in both a literal sense, i.e. actually at the edge of the image,...
Article
Elbow injection (disambiguation)
Elbow injection usually refers to an elbow joint injection, but especially to patients, it can be a term used referring to other procedures which include:
common extensor origin microtenotomy
common flexor origin microtenotomy
distal biceps tendon sheath injection
elbow joint injection
MRI ...
Article
Elbow radiograph (checklist)
The elbow radiograph checklist is just one of the many pathology checklists that can be used when reporting to ensure that you always actively exclude pathology that is commonly missed; this is particularly helpful in the examination setting, e.g. the FRCR 2B rapid-reporting.
Radiograph
Elbow ...
Article
Elbow radiograph (summary approach)
This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists
Elbow radiographs are common plain films that are obtained frequently in the emergency department.
Summary approach
alignment
anterior humeral line
drawn down the anterior surface of the humerus
should intersect the mi...
Article
Empyema vs pulmonary abscess
Distinguishing between an empyema and a peripherally located pulmonary abscess is essential.
Lung abscesses are usually managed with prolonged antibiotics and physiotherapy with postural drainage whereas an empyema usually requires percutaneous or surgical drainage.
Radiographic features
Plai...
Article
Enchondroma vs low grade chondrosarcoma
Distinguishing between enchondromas and low-grade conventional chondrosarcomas is a frequent difficulty as the lesions are both histologically and radiographically very similar.
It is important to remember, though, that differentiating between them may be a moot point since both can either be c...
Article
Endometrial polyp in the exam
Getting a film with endometrial polyp in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for.
Description
Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound images in a lady with post-menopausal bleeding show an anteverted uterus with focal increased endometrial thickness to 1...
Article
Enlargement of the cardiac silhouette
Enlargement of the cardiac silhouette on a frontal (or PA) chest x-ray can be due to a number of causes 1:
cardiomegaly (most common cause by far)
pericardial effusion
anterior mediastinal mass
prominent epicardial fat pad
expiratory radiograph
AP projection (e.g supine radiographs taken w...
Article
Enteroclysis
Enteroclysis is a gastrointestinal technique designed to provide improved evaluation of the small bowel. The conventional fluoroscopic technique is not widely used since it is somewhat invasive, time and labor intensive, and not particularly pleasant for the patient. The exam also requires a deg...
Article
Epiphenomenon
Epiphenomenon (plural: epiphenomena) is a term used in medicine to refer to the association between two conditions 'X' and 'Y', in that there is a correlation, but without implying any direct causal link.
Article
Epistaxis
Epistaxis (plural: epistaxes) is the medical term for a nosebleed, and is very common in clinical practice with a broad differential diagnosis. Anterior epistaxes mainly bleed from Kiesselbach's plexus and posterior epistaxes (5% of all epistaxis) from Woodruff's plexus.
Epidemiology
Epistaxis...
Article
Erectile dysfunction
Erectile dysfunction is a common condition. Doppler ultrasound is a highly accurate means of assessing patients with erectile dysfunction.
Pathology
Psychological factors (mental impulse) cause transmission of parasympathetic impulses to the penis. This causes relaxation of arterioles and cor...
Article
Errors in diagnostic radiology
Errors in diagnostic radiology occur for a variety of reasons related to human error, technical factors and system faults.
Classification
Renfrew classification
This classification was proposed by Renfrew et al. 5 in 1992, and at the time of writing (July 2016) remains the most widely accept...
Article
Evacuation proctography
Evacuation proctography (defecography) is a fluoroscopic technique to evaluate pelvic floor disorders. The technique traditionally involves fluoroscopy and barium, but an analogous MRI technique has also been developed (see: MR defecating proctography).
Indications
incomplete or obstructed def...
Article
Evaluation of recurrent bone tumors
Recurrent bone tumors are a common complication post curettage or resection.
Radiographic features
Radiographs taken pre- and postoperatively are sufficient for evaluation of recurrence based on the following features:
osteolytic changes
cortical changes
matrix mineralization (characteristi...
Article
Exam set-pieces
Exam set-pieces refer to those cases that can be considered likely to turn up in the exam setting and can be prepared for. In the oral exam, having a prepared "speech" for these set-pieces allows the candidate to focus less on the stress of describing what is in front of them and more on conside...
Article
Extra-articular injection
Extra-articular injections occur when the needle tip is not within the targeted joint during joint injections.
Terminology
Defined by the presence of contrast outside of a joint in fluoroscopic or CT guided procedures, or the lack of direct visualization and resisted flow of intra-articular in...
Article
Extracellular volume (ECV) - myocardium
Extracellular volume (ECV) refers to the space or volume of a tissue, which is not occupied by cells. Apart from the usual extracellular space, which surrounds the cells of a specific tissue it also includes the intracapillary plasma volume 1,2. It measures the space, which is occupied by the ex...
Article
Extradural hematoma vs subdural hematoma
Differentiating extradural (EDH) from subdural (SDH) hemorrhage in the head is usually straightforward, but occasionally it can be challenging. SDHs are more common and there are a few distinguishing features which are usually reliable.
Pathology
History and mechanism of injury
Extradural hem...
Article
Extrusion index
The extrusion index is a radiographic measurement of femoral head bony coverage by the acetabulum. It is useful in assessing for developmental dysplasia of the hip as well as femoroacetabular impingement.
Measurement
It is calculated by dividing the horizontal distance of the lateral femoral h...
Article
Femur length
Fetal femur length (FL) is one of the basic biometric parameters used to assess fetal size. Femur length together with biparietal diameter, head circumference, and abdominal circumference are computed to produce an estimate of fetal weight. In the second trimester, this may be extrapolated to an...
Article
Fetal abdominal circumference
Abdominal circumference (AC) is one of the basic biometric parameters used to assess fetal size. AC together with biparietal diameter, head circumference, and femur length are computed to produce an estimate of fetal weight. In the second trimester this may be extrapolated to an estimate of gest...
Article
Fetal cardiothoracic circumference ratio
Fetal cardiothoracic (C/T) circumference ratio is a parameter than can be used in assessment of fetal cardiac and thoracic/chest wall anomalies. It is the ratio of the cardiac circumference to the thoracic circumference and may be easily measured on fetal ultrasound/echocardiography.
Radiograp...
Article
Fetal MCA systolic/diastolic ratio
Fetal MCA systolic/diastolic (S/D) ratio is an important parameter in fetal middle cerebral arterial Doppler assessment. It is a useful predictor of fetal distress and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR).
Interpretation
Normal
During pregnancy the middle cerebral (and other intracranial)...
Article
Fetal middle cerebral arterial Doppler assessment
Fetal middle cerebral arterial (MCA) Doppler assessment is an important part of assessing fetal cardiovascular distress, fetal anemia or fetal hypoxia. In the appropriate situation it is a very useful adjunct to umbilical artery Doppler assessment. It is also used in the additional work up of:
...
Article
Fetal middle cerebral arterial peak systolic velocity
The fetal middle cerebral arterial (MCA) peak systolic velocity (PSV) is an important parameter in fetal MCA Doppler assessment.
Measurement
The fetal MCA should be sampled~2 mm from the origin of the fetal internal carotid artery and the angle of the ultrasound beam and the direction of blood...
Article
Fetal middle cerebral artery pulsatility index
The fetal middle cerebral artery (MCA) pulsatility index (PI) is a key parameter used in fetal middle cerebral arterial Doppler assessment. It is calculated by subtracting the end-diastolic velocity (EDV) from the peak systolic velocity (PSV) and then dividing by the time-averaged (mean) velocit...
Article
First metatarsal axis
The first metatarsal axis is represented by a line drawn down the longitudinal axis of the shaft of the first metatarsal. It can be drawn on lateral and DP radiographs and is used to measure the:
first metatarsal inclination angle
talo-first metatarsal angle
Article
First metatarsophalangeal angle
The first metatarsophalangeal angle, also known as hallux valgus angle (HVA) or hallux abductus angle, is a measurement used to assess the presence and severity of the alignment of the first metatarsophalangeal joint on a weight-bearing dorsoplantar radiograph of the foot.
Measurement
The angl...
Article
Flattening of the diaphragm
Flattening of the diaphragm is the most sensitive sign on chest radiographs for the presence of hyperinflation of the lungs, usually due to emphysema 1-2.
The normal dome of each hemidiaphragm should rise at least 1.5 cm above a line connecting the costophrenic angle posteriorly and sternophren...
Article
Fleischner Society pulmonary nodule recommendations
The Fleischner Society pulmonary nodule recommendations pertain to the follow-up and management of indeterminate pulmonary nodules detected incidentally on CT and are published by the Fleischner Society. The guideline does not apply to lung cancer screening, patients younger than 35 years, or pa...
Article
Fluid collection
A fluid collection (often colloquially expressed in the medical vernacular as a collection) is a non-specific term used in radiology to refer to any focal loculation of liquid in the body, usually within a pre-existing anatomical space/potential space e.g. peritoneal, pleural, subdural. The term...
Article
Fluid-fluid levels in bone tumors
Fluid-fluid levels in bone tumors is a commonly encountered finding, both in benign as well as malignant bone tumors, and can be used to differentiate between the two.
Measurement
On the sagittal T2W image:
measure the length of the largest fluid-fluid level (A)
measure the maximum length of...
Article
Fluoroscopic evaluation of esophagectomy
Fluoroscopic evaluation of esophagectomy is an important study, given the high rate of complication following esophagectomy (~10-20% rate of leak). Although the approach will differ slightly depending on the type of esophagectomy performed, the principles are similar.
Procedure
Preprocedural e...
Article
Focal areas of signal intensity (brain)
Focal areas of signal intensity (FASI), alternatively called focal abnormal signal intensity are bright areas on T2-weighted images commonly identified in the basal ganglia (often the globus pallidus), thalamus, brainstem (pons), cerebellum, and subcortical white matter in children with neurofib...
Article
Focus‐assessed transthoracic echocardiography
FATE (focus‐assessed transthoracic echocardiography) is a goal-directed protocol used in critical care for indications such as hemodynamic instability, shock, and pulseless electrical activity (PEA) arrest 1.
The protocol is designed as a series of questions as follows:
does the left ventricle...
Article
Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) scan
Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) scan is a point-of-care ultrasound examination performed at the time of presentation of a trauma patient.
It is invariably performed by a clinician, who should be formally trained, and is considered as an 'extension' of the trauma clinical a...
Article
Follicular monitoring
Follicular monitoring or follicular study is a vital component of in-vitro fertilization (IVF) assessment and timing. It basically employs a simple technique for assessing ovarian follicles at regular intervals and documenting the pathway to ovulation.
Physiology
Journey to ovulation begins d...
Article
Foot injection (disambiguation)
Foot injection is a non-specific term, often used by patients, in reference to tarsal or metatarsal joint injections, and to other injections which include:
calcaneocuboid joint injection
metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPJ) injection
naviculocuneiform joint injection
plantar fascia microtenoto...
Article
Foot radiograph (an approach)
Foot radiographs are commonly performed in Emergency departments, usually after sport-related trauma and often with a clinical request that states lateral border pain. Remember to check the whole film, though. Often, a foot x-ray is also requested for the investigation of osteomyelitis, arthriti...
Article
Foot radiograph (checklist)
The foot radiograph checklist is just one of the many pathology checklists that can be used when reporting to ensure that you always actively exclude pathology that is commonly missed; this is particularly helpful in the examination setting, e.g. the FRCR 2B rapid-reporting.
Radiograph
Foot ra...
Article
Forbidden areas in mammography
In breast imaging, forbidden, check or review areas are zones that, according to Tabár, require special attention in mammographic interpretation. These are:
on a mediolateral oblique (MLO) view
the "Milky Way" (retromammary fat): a 3-4 cm wide band parallel to the edge of the pectoral muscle
...
Article
Four chamber cardiac view (fetal)
The four chamber cardiac view is an important and routinely performed view in both fetal echocardiography as well as on a standard second trimester anatomy scan.
Detectable pathology
The four chamber view can only detect some of the congenital cardiac anomalies (~64% according to one study 2) ...
Article
Frontal horn width to intercaudate distance ratio
Frontal horn width to intercaudate distance ratio (FH/CC) is used in assessing patients with suspected Huntington disease. An alternative measurement is intercaudate distance to inner table width ratio (CC/IT).
Measurement
On the same axial plane obtained on the ACPC (anterior commissure and p...