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Clothing artifact

Clothing artifacts, like jewelry artifacts, are a regular feature on imaging examinations, especially plain radiographs, but in general are recognized for what they are, either at the time the image is taken by the radiographer, or later by the reporting radiologist. The radiographer will often ...

Coarse trabecular pattern in bone (differentials)

Coarse trabecular bones can result from a number of causes. They include: Paget disease (bone) osteoporosis osteomalacia rickets hemaglobinopathies, e.g. thalassemia Gaucher's disease hyperparathyroidism See also Coarse trabecular pattern in bone (mnemonic)

Cobb angle

The Cobb angle is the most widely used measurement to quantify the magnitude of spinal deformities, especially in the case of scoliosis, on plain radiographs. Scoliosis is defined as a lateral spinal curvature with a Cobb angle of >10° 4. A Cobb angle can also aid kyphosis or lordosis assessment...

Cognitive bias in diagnostic radiology

Cognitive biases have a complex and significant impact on the perception of examinations within diagnostic radiology, with the clear and present danger of diagnostic errors. The following are some of the more common cognitive biases that can affect day-to-day decision making 1. Anchoring bias ...

Complications of sleeve gastrectomy

Complications of sleeve gastrectomy are often evaluated by imaging. For details about the surgical procedure, please see the parental article on sleeve gastrectomy. Postoperative complications can be classified by etiology or temporality. Early complications staple line leakage clinical pr...

Computed tomographic (CT) colonography

Computed tomographic (CT) colonography, also called CTC, virtual colonoscopy (VC) or CT pneumocolon, is a powerful minimally invasive technique for colorectal cancer screening. Indications screening test for colorectal carcinoma colon evaluation after incomplete or unsuccessful conventional c...

Computed tomographic (CT) gastrography

Computed tomographic (CT) gastrography, also called virtual gastroscopy (VG), is a noninvasive procedure for the detection of gastric abnormalities. Advantages rapid and noninvasive exam offers information about local tumor invasion, lymph node and distant metastasis in cases of gastric cance...

Computed tomography of the chest

Computed tomography (CT) of the chest is a cross-sectional evaluation of the heart, airways, lungs, mediastinum, and associated bones and soft tissues. Two key methods of image acquisition include: standard CT with 5 mm slice thickness for mediastinum and gross evaluation of lungs high-resolu...

Computed tomography texture analysis

Computed tomography texture analysis (or CTTA) is a method to obtain new useful biomarkers that provide objective and quantitative assessment of tumor heterogeneity by analyzing the differences and patterns within the pixel values of an image. CTs can be worked with as a matrix of numbers, corre...

Concurrent suprasellar and pineal region lesions (differential)

Concurrent suprasellar and pineal region lesions have a relatively short differential to be considered, including: germinoma other germ cell tumors choriocarcinoma embryonal cell carcinoma yolk sac tumor (endodermal sinus tumor) primary CNS lymphoma cerebral metastasis quadrilateral ret...

Conditions involving the nipple-areolar complex

The nipple areolar complex is a major anatomic landmark of the breast. It may be affected by variation in its embryological development, breast maturation and also by other benign and malignant conditions. Variant anatomy amazia polythelia nipple retraction or inversion enlarged nipple Ben...

Congenital heart disease chest x-ray (an approach)

With the advent of echocardiography, and cardiac CT and MRI, the role of chest x-rays in evaluating congenital heart disease has been largely been relegated to one of historical and academic interest, although they continue to crop up in radiology exams. In most instances a definite diagnosis ca...

Congenital heart disease in echocardiography (an approach)

The diagnosis of congenital heart disease in echocardiography is outside the scope of basic echocardiography, however, several common features may be recognized at the point of care which allow for initial stablization and management before a complete echocardiography exam may be performed. In ...

Coracoclavicular distance

The coracoclavicular (CC) distance is an indicator of the integrity of the coracoclavicular (CC) ligament. Measurement The CC distance is assessed on frontal radiography of the shoulder or clavicle or the coronal projection of a CT or MRI as the distance between the superior cortex of the cora...

Coracohumeral interval

The coracohumeral interval is usually measured on axial or oblique sagittal CT or MRI and normally measures between 7-11 mm. A measurement <6 mm is always considered abnormal 1.

Coronal balance

Coronal balance is one of the features that needs to be assessed on long spine radiographs obtained for spinal deformity, particularly scoliosis. It measures whether or not the upper spine is located over the midline (normal) or off to one side. Measurement To assess coronal balance, a vertic...

Coronary Artery Disease - Reporting and Data System

The Coronary Artery Disease - Reporting and Data System (CAD-RADS) is a standardized findings communication method and clinical decision aid relevant to coronary CT angiography. The system was created by a collaboration of the Society for Cardiovascular Computed Tomography (SCCT), American Colle...

Coxa magna

Coxa magna is the asymmetrical, circumferential enlargement and deformation of the femoral head and neck. Definitions in the literature vary but enlargement with asymmetry >10% in size is a reasonable cut-off for diagnosis 1. Pathology Etiology Legg-Calve-Perthes disease transient synovitis...

Coxa profunda

Coxa profunda refers to a deep acetabular socket. On pelvis x-rays it is seen as the acetabular fossa being medial to the ilioischial line. It should be differentiated from protrusio acetabuli, where the femoral head is seen additionally medial to the ilioischial (Kohler's) line. Coxa profunda i...

Crohn disease vs ulcerative colitis

Due to the overlap in the clinical presentation of Crohn disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), imaging often has a role to play in distinguishing the two. Distinguishing features include: bowel involved CD: small bowel 70-80%, only 15-20% have only colonic involvement UC: rectal involveme...

CT angiography of the cerebral arteries (technique)

CT angiography of the cerebral arteries (also known as a CTA carotids or an arch to vertex angiogram) is a noninvasive technique allows visualization of the internal and external carotid arteries and vertebral arteries and can include just the intracranial compartment or also extend down to the ...

CT cisternography

Computed tomography (CT) cisternography is an imaging technique used to diagnose CSF rhinorrhea or CSF otorrhea (CSF leaks), as CT allows the assessment of the bones of the base of the skull. Procedure pre-contrast CT is performed with thin slices 3-10 mL of an iodinated non-ionic low-osmola...

CT colonography - pitfalls

The interpretation of CT colonography can sometimes be difficult because of pitfalls, which may be a source of false negative and false positive findings. When suboptimal CT colonography techniques are applied, the number and severity of interpretive pitfalls can rapidly multiply. However, when ...

CT cystography

CT cystography is a variation of the traditional fluoroscopic cystogram. Instead of anterograde opacification of the urinary collecting system (as with CT urography), contrast is instilled retrograde into the patient's bladder, and then the pelvis is imaged with CT. Indications suspected bladd...

CT enterography

Computed tomographic (CT) enterography is a non-invasive technique for the diagnosis of small bowel disorders. Indications CT enterography, similarly to MRI enterography, is most commonly used to evaluate patients with Crohn disease where it is used for assessment of the primary disease and an...

CT head (an approach)

The approach taken to interpreting a CT scan of the head is no doubt different depending on the circumstances and the reading clinician, however, most radiologists will go through the same steps, although order may vary. What follows is merely a suggested approach to interpreting a CT of the hea...

CT head (subdural window)

The subdural (blood) window can be used when reviewing a CT brain as it makes intracranial hemorrhage more conspicuous, and may help in the detection of thin acute subdural hematomas that are against the calvaria that are similar density to adjacent bone. It is a wider setting than the standard ...

CT liver volumetry in living donor liver transplantation (approach)

CT liver volumetry in living donor liver transplantation is essential imaging studies in preoperative assessment. Liver volumetry is performed for the donor liver to calculate the graft volume and remnant liver volume. Preoperative measurement of liver volume is important to avoid graft mismatc...

CT perfusion in ischemic stroke

CT perfusion in ischemic stroke has become established in most centers with stroke services as an important adjunct, along with CT angiography (CTA), to conventional unenhanced CT brain imaging. It enables differentiation of salvageable ischemic brain tissue (the penumbra) from the irrevocably ...

CT peritoneography

CT peritoneography is an examination used to assess difficulties with peritoneal dialysis. Indications Recurrent peritonitis with difficulty with fluid exchange, abdominal wall or genital soft tissue edema, localized bulging of the abdomen, and poor ultrafiltration. Technique Before perform...

CT polytrauma (approach)

Below is an approach used for the "primary survey" of a CT polytrauma/multitrauma (also called trauma CT or whole body CT), often performed at the CT console with the patient still on the CT table. It allows rapid communication of significant findings to the trauma team as well as the decision ...

CVC position on chest x-ray (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Chest x-ray CVC (central venous catheter) position should be assessed following initial placement and on subsequent radiographs. Reference article This is a summary article; for a more in-depth reference article see centr...

Cystography

Cystography is a fluoroscopic study that images the bladder. It is similar to a voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG), and the difference between the studies is primarily one of emphasis; a cystogram focuses on the bladder and a VCUG focuses on the posterior urethra. The study has been adapted to CT a...

Deductive echocardiography

Deductive echocardiography is a step-by-step approach in diagnosing and differentiating congenital heart disease. Parameters assessed position of heart levocardia dextrocardia visceroatrial situs solitus inversus ambiguus ventricular loop D-loop L-loop conotruncus normal transpose...

Deep brain ultrasound therapy

Deep brain ultrasound (DBUS) therapy is a form of precision medicine using a technique based on the principle of high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU), also referred to as focused ultrasound surgery (FUS). Technique The method combines two main components 1: guidance component MRI of the ...

Deep endometriosis (transvaginal ultrasound)

Transvaginal ultrasound (TV) for deep endometriosis is a specialized ultrasound technique used for the detection of deep endometriosis (DE). It differs from a traditional pelvic ultrasound in that the scan is extended beyond the uterus and ovaries to assess the anterior and posterior pelvic comp...

Deepest vertical pocket method

The deepest (maximal) vertical pocket (DVP) depth is considered a reliable method for assessing amniotic fluid volume on ultrasound 1,2. It is performed by assessing a pocket of a maximal depth of amniotic fluid which is free of an umbilical cord and fetal parts. The usually accepted values are...

Densitometric vertebral fracture assessment

Densitometric vertebral fracture assessment (VFA) is an image of the lumbar and thoracic spine acquired on dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scanners, for the purpose of diagnosing osteoporotic vertebral fractures. Terminology The technique is available on DXA scanners under a variety of...

Denver criteria for blunt cerebrovascular injury

The Denver criteria are a set of screening criteria used to determine when CT angiography of the neck is indicated to detect blunt cerebrovascular injury (BCVI) in trauma patients. Screening criteria The Denver criteria were initially developed in 1996 1, modified in 2005 to limit the types o...

Describing a bone lesion

Describing a bone lesion is an essential skill for the radiologist, used to form an accurate differential diagnosis for neoplastic entities, and occasionally non-neoplastic. In addition to patient demographics, the radiographic features of a bone lesion are often the primary determinant of non-h...

Describing a fracture (an approach)

Describing a fracture is a basic requirement when making an assessment of a plain radiograph. There are many ways to approach the assessment of the radiograph; this is just one approach. I: Describe the radiograph What radiograph (or radiographs) are you looking at? Check the who, what, why, w...

Determination of atrial situs

Atrial situs refers to the relative position of the cardiac atria in relation to abdominal viscera and the midline. Pathology Identification of atrial situs is an important initial step in the antenatal and postnatal diagnosis of cardiac structural and situs anomalies. Radiographic features ...

Diagnostic HRCT criteria for usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) pattern - Fleischner society guideline (2018)

In 2018, the Fleischner Society provided updated diagnostic HRCT criteria for usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) pattern based on literature review and the expert opinion of members. As a part of this white paper, diagnostic HRCT criteria for usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) pattern were updat...

Diastolic dysfunction assessment (echocardiography)

According to the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging, diastolic dysfunction assessment on echocardiography is divided into two different groups based on left ventricular systolic function. Normal left ventricular systolic function There ...

Diastolic dysfunction (point of care ultrasound)

Assessment for diastolic dysfunction is an advanced application of point-of-care ultrasonography, most commonly used as a supplemental non-invasive estimate of left atrial pressure in hemodynamically complex patients 1. Of note, this article will discuss the simplified, binary approach used in c...

Diffuse pulmonary nodules

Diffuse pulmonary nodules are usually seen as multiple pulmonary nodular opacifications on a HRCT chest scan. They can signify disease processes affecting either the interstitium or the airspace. They can range from a few millimeters to up to 1 cm and when very small and numerous there can be so...

Diffuse pulmonary nodules (differential diagnosis)

A number of differentials must be kept in mind while approaching diffuse or multiple pulmonary nodules. Interpretation is easier if nodules are the only abnormality. Differential diagnosis These differentials can be narrowed down based on several criteria: Based on appearance miliary nodule...

Digastric line

The digastric line, also known as the biventer line, has been described and used to evaluate basilar invagination on frontal skull plain film and coronal CT images. The digastric line is drawn between right and left digastric grooves, which are located medial to the mastoid apices. These are co...

Dolan's lines

Dolan's lines are the collective name given to three lines described by Dolan and Jacoby 1 that aid in evaluating for maxillofacial fractures on an occipitomental skull radiograph. They are usually used as an adjunct to McGrigor-Campbell lines. orbital line traces the inner margins of the later...

Edge of film error

Edge of film errors, also known as corner of film errors, are a classical perceptual error in radiology where a pertinent finding, whether incidental or not, is at the margin or edge of the image. It is now used for all modalities, in both a literal sense, i.e. actually at the edge of the image,...

Elbow injection (disambiguation)

Elbow injection usually refers to an elbow joint injection, but especially to patients, it can be a term used referring to other procedures which include: common extensor origin microtenotomy common flexor origin microtenotomy distal biceps tendon sheath injection elbow joint injection MRI ...

Elbow radiograph (checklist)

The elbow radiograph checklist is just one of the many pathology checklists that can be used when reporting to ensure that you always actively exclude pathology that is commonly missed; this is particularly helpful in the examination setting, e.g. the FRCR 2B rapid-reporting. Radiograph Elbow ...

Elbow radiograph (summary approach)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Elbow radiographs are common plain films that are obtained frequently in the emergency department. Summary approach alignment anterior humeral line drawn down the anterior surface of the humerus should intersect the mi...

Empyema vs pulmonary abscess

Distinguishing between an empyema and a peripherally located pulmonary abscess is essential. Lung abscesses are usually managed with prolonged antibiotics and physiotherapy with postural drainage whereas an empyema usually requires percutaneous or surgical drainage. Radiographic features Plai...

Enchondroma vs low grade chondrosarcoma

Distinguishing between enchondromas and low-grade conventional chondrosarcomas is a frequent difficulty as the lesions are both histologically and radiographically very similar. It is important to remember, though, that differentiating between them may be a moot point since both can either be c...

Endometrial polyp in the exam

Getting a film with endometrial polyp in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound images in a lady with post-menopausal bleeding show an anteverted uterus with focal increased endometrial thickness to 1...

Enlargement of the cardiac silhouette

Enlargement of the cardiac silhouette on a frontal (or PA) chest x-ray can be due to a number of causes 1: cardiomegaly (most common cause by far) pericardial effusion anterior mediastinal mass prominent epicardial fat pad expiratory radiograph AP projection (e.g supine radiographs taken w...

Enteroclysis

Enteroclysis is a gastrointestinal technique designed to provide improved evaluation of the small bowel. The conventional fluoroscopic technique is not widely used since it is somewhat invasive, time and labor intensive, and not particularly pleasant for the patient. The exam also requires a deg...

Epiphenomenon

Epiphenomenon (plural: epiphenomena) is a term used in medicine to refer to the association between two conditions 'X' and 'Y', in that there is a correlation, but without implying any direct causal link.

Epistaxis

Epistaxis (plural: epistaxes) is the medical term for a nosebleed, and is very common in clinical practice with a broad differential diagnosis. Anterior epistaxes mainly bleed from Kiesselbach's plexus and posterior epistaxes (5% of all epistaxis) from Woodruff's plexus. Epidemiology Epistaxis...

Erectile dysfunction

Erectile dysfunction is a common condition. Doppler ultrasound is a highly accurate means of assessing patients with erectile dysfunction. Pathology Psychological factors (mental impulse) cause transmission of parasympathetic impulses to the penis. This causes relaxation of arterioles and cor...

Errors in diagnostic radiology

Errors in diagnostic radiology occur for a variety of reasons related to human error, technical factors and system faults. Classification Renfrew classification This classification was proposed by Renfrew et al. 5 in 1992, and at the time of writing (July 2016) remains the most widely accept...

Evacuation proctography

Evacuation proctography (defecography) is a fluoroscopic technique to evaluate pelvic floor disorders. The technique traditionally involves fluoroscopy and barium, but an analogous MRI technique has also been developed (see: MR defecating proctography). Indications incomplete or obstructed def...

Evaluation of recurrent bone tumors

Recurrent bone tumors are a common complication post curettage or resection. Radiographic features Radiographs taken pre- and postoperatively are sufficient for evaluation of recurrence based on the following features: osteolytic changes cortical changes matrix mineralization (characteristi...

Exam set-pieces

Exam set-pieces refer to those cases that can be considered likely to turn up in the exam setting and can be prepared for. In the oral exam, having a prepared "speech" for these set-pieces allows the candidate to focus less on the stress of describing what is in front of them and more on conside...

Extra-articular injection

Extra-articular injections occur when the needle tip is not within the targeted joint during joint injections. Terminology Defined by the presence of contrast outside of a joint in fluoroscopic or CT guided procedures, or the lack of direct visualization and resisted flow of intra-articular in...

Extracellular volume (ECV) - myocardium

Extracellular volume (ECV) refers to the space or volume of a tissue, which is not occupied by cells. Apart from the usual extracellular space, which surrounds the cells of a specific tissue it also includes the intracapillary plasma volume 1,2. It measures the space, which is occupied by the ex...

Extradural hematoma vs subdural hematoma

Differentiating extradural (EDH) from subdural (SDH) hemorrhage in the head is usually straightforward, but occasionally it can be challenging. SDHs are more common and there are a few distinguishing features which are usually reliable. Pathology History and mechanism of injury Extradural hem...

Extrusion index

The extrusion index is a radiographic measurement of femoral head bony coverage by the acetabulum. It is useful in assessing for developmental dysplasia of the hip as well as femoroacetabular impingement. Measurement It is calculated by dividing the horizontal distance of the lateral femoral h...

Femur length

Fetal femur length (FL) is one of the basic biometric parameters used to assess fetal size. Femur length together with biparietal diameter, head circumference, and abdominal circumference are computed to produce an estimate of fetal weight. In the second trimester, this may be extrapolated to an...

Fetal abdominal circumference

Abdominal circumference (AC) is one of the basic biometric parameters used to assess fetal size. AC together with biparietal diameter, head circumference, and femur length are computed to produce an estimate of fetal weight. In the second trimester this may be extrapolated to an estimate of gest...

Fetal cardiothoracic circumference ratio

Fetal cardiothoracic (C/T) circumference ratio is a parameter than can be used in assessment of fetal cardiac and thoracic/chest wall anomalies. It is the ratio of the cardiac circumference to the thoracic circumference and may be easily measured on fetal ultrasound/echocardiography. Radiograp...

Fetal MCA systolic/diastolic ratio

Fetal MCA systolic/diastolic (S/D) ratio is an important parameter in fetal middle cerebral arterial Doppler assessment. It is a useful predictor of fetal distress and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). Interpretation Normal During pregnancy the middle cerebral (and other intracranial)...

Fetal middle cerebral arterial Doppler assessment

Fetal middle cerebral arterial (MCA) Doppler assessment is an important part of assessing fetal cardiovascular distress, fetal anemia or fetal hypoxia. In the appropriate situation it is a very useful adjunct to umbilical artery Doppler assessment. It is also used in the additional work up of: ...

Fetal middle cerebral arterial peak systolic velocity

The fetal middle cerebral arterial (MCA) peak systolic velocity (PSV) is an important parameter in fetal MCA Doppler assessment. Measurement The fetal MCA should be sampled~2 mm from the origin of the fetal internal carotid artery and the angle of the ultrasound beam and the direction of blood...

Fetal middle cerebral artery pulsatility index

The fetal middle cerebral artery (MCA) pulsatility index (PI) is a key parameter used in fetal middle cerebral arterial Doppler assessment. It is calculated by subtracting the end-diastolic velocity (EDV) from the peak systolic velocity (PSV) and then dividing by the time-averaged (mean) velocit...

First metatarsal axis

The first metatarsal axis is represented by a line drawn down the longitudinal axis of the shaft of the first metatarsal. It can be drawn on lateral and DP radiographs and is used to measure the: first metatarsal inclination angle talo-first metatarsal angle

First metatarsophalangeal angle

The first metatarsophalangeal angle, also known as hallux valgus angle (HVA) or hallux abductus angle, is a measurement used to assess the presence and severity of the alignment of the first metatarsophalangeal joint on a weight-bearing dorsoplantar radiograph of the foot. Measurement The angl...

Flattening of the diaphragm

Flattening of the diaphragm is the most sensitive sign on chest radiographs for the presence of hyperinflation of the lungs, usually due to emphysema 1-2. The normal dome of each hemidiaphragm should rise at least 1.5 cm above a line connecting the costophrenic angle posteriorly and sternophren...

Fleischner Society pulmonary nodule recommendations

The Fleischner Society pulmonary nodule recommendations pertain to the follow-up and management of indeterminate pulmonary nodules detected incidentally on CT and are published by the Fleischner Society. The guideline does not apply to lung cancer screening, patients younger than 35 years, or pa...

Fluid collection

A fluid collection (often colloquially expressed in the medical vernacular as a collection) is a non-specific term used in radiology to refer to any focal loculation of liquid in the body, usually within a pre-existing anatomical space/potential space e.g. peritoneal, pleural, subdural. The term...

Fluid-fluid levels in bone tumors

Fluid-fluid levels in bone tumors is a commonly encountered finding, both in benign as well as malignant bone tumors, and can be used to differentiate between the two. Measurement On the sagittal T2W image: measure the length of the largest fluid-fluid level (A) measure the maximum length of...

Fluoroscopic evaluation of esophagectomy

Fluoroscopic evaluation of esophagectomy is an important study, given the high rate of complication following esophagectomy (~10-20% rate of leak). Although the approach will differ slightly depending on the type of esophagectomy performed, the principles are similar. Procedure Preprocedural e...

Focal areas of signal intensity (brain)

Focal areas of signal intensity (FASI), alternatively called focal abnormal signal intensity are bright areas on T2-weighted images commonly identified in the basal ganglia (often the globus pallidus), thalamus, brainstem (pons), cerebellum, and subcortical white matter in children with neurofib...

Focus‐assessed transthoracic echocardiography

FATE (focus‐assessed transthoracic echocardiography) is a goal-directed protocol used in critical care for indications such as hemodynamic instability, shock, and pulseless electrical activity (PEA) arrest 1. The protocol is designed as a series of questions as follows: does the left ventricle...

Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) scan

Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) scan is a point-of-care ultrasound examination performed at the time of presentation of a trauma patient. It is invariably performed by a clinician, who should be formally trained, and is considered as an 'extension' of the trauma clinical a...

Follicular monitoring

Follicular monitoring or follicular study is a vital component of in-vitro fertilization (IVF) assessment and timing. It basically employs a simple technique for assessing ovarian follicles at regular intervals and documenting the pathway to ovulation. Physiology Journey to ovulation begins d...

Foot injection (disambiguation)

Foot injection is a non-specific term, often used by patients, in reference to tarsal or metatarsal joint injections, and to other injections which include: calcaneocuboid joint injection metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPJ) injection naviculocuneiform joint injection plantar fascia microtenoto...

Foot radiograph (an approach)

Foot radiographs are commonly performed in Emergency departments, usually after sport-related trauma and often with a clinical request that states lateral border pain. Remember to check the whole film, though. Often, a foot x-ray is also requested for the investigation of osteomyelitis, arthriti...

Foot radiograph (checklist)

The foot radiograph checklist is just one of the many pathology checklists that can be used when reporting to ensure that you always actively exclude pathology that is commonly missed; this is particularly helpful in the examination setting, e.g. the FRCR 2B rapid-reporting. Radiograph Foot ra...

Forbidden areas in mammography

In breast imaging, forbidden, check or review areas are zones that, according to Tabár, require special attention in mammographic interpretation. These are: on a mediolateral oblique (MLO) view the "Milky Way" (retromammary fat): a 3-4 cm wide band parallel to the edge of the pectoral muscle ...

Four chamber cardiac view (fetal)

The four chamber cardiac view is an important and routinely performed view in both fetal echocardiography as well as on a standard second trimester anatomy scan. Detectable pathology The four chamber view can only detect some of the congenital cardiac anomalies (~64% according to one study 2) ...

Frontal horn width to intercaudate distance ratio

Frontal horn width to intercaudate distance ratio (FH/CC) is used in assessing patients with suspected Huntington disease. An alternative measurement is intercaudate distance to inner table width ratio (CC/IT). Measurement On the same axial plane obtained on the ACPC (anterior commissure and p...

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