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393 results found

Penile Doppler in erectile dysfunction

Penile Doppler in erectile dysfunction or papaverine-induced color duplex Doppler, is a highly accurate means of assessing patients with erectile dysfunction (ED). Pathology Penile erection is a result of a complex interaction between the nervous, arterial, venous and sinusoidal systems. Any d...

Perigestational hemorrhage in the exam

Getting a film with perigestational hemorrhage in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal (TV) pelvic ultrasound shows an anteverted uterus with an intrauterine gestational sac. MSD is 20 mm in TV study with a single, l...

Per vaginal bleeding in the exam

It is important to have a systematic way of approaching a case with per vaginal bleeding in the exam. Premenopausal embedded IUD lost IUD submucosal fibroid Pregnancy related perigestational hemorrhage intrauterine fetal demise ectopic pregnancy ruptured ectopic cervical ectopic int...

Physiological pelvic intraperitoneal fluid

Physiological pelvic intraperitoneal fluid refers to the presence of a small volume of free fluid in the pelvis, particularly the pouch of Douglas. It occurs in young females of reproductive age and can be a mimic of traumatic free fluid in abdominal trauma. Unfortunately, pelvic free fluid may...

Pineal region (an approach)

A systematic approach to the pineal region is crucial as it is at the confluence of many intracranial structures/regions and is the site of origin of a number of unique pathologies as well as playing host to many entities which are more frequently encountered elsewhere. As such an understanding ...

Pituitary MRI (an approach)

A systematic approach to the pituitary region is crucial as small lesions can have a profound impact on the patient, and can be subtle even on high quality dedicated MRI imaging. Successful assessment of the pituitary region relies not only on a clear understanding of the local anatomy but also ...

Placental abruption in the exam

Getting a film with placental abruption (premature separation of placenta from uterus) in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound show a single live fetus with gestational age of 27 weeks. The cervix i...

Pleural effusion volume (ultrasound)

Measurement of a pleural effusion volume with point-of-care ultrasonography may be a useful tool for intensivists and is an active area of research in critical care 7. In controlled settings ultrasound may detect constitutive pleural fluid, can reliably detect effusions >20mL in clinical settin...

Pneumothorax

Pneumothorax (PTX) (plural: pneumothoraces) refers to the presence of gas (air) in the pleural space. When this collection of gas is constantly enlarging with resulting compression of mediastinal structures, it can be life-threatening and is known as a tension pneumothorax (if no tension is pres...

Pneumothorax in the exam

Getting a film with a pneumothorax in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. It is unlikely that they will give you a simple pneumothorax - so, it is worth while considering the likely causes and whether it is under tension. Miss it at your peril (both in real l...

Point-of-care ultrasound (curriculum)

The point-of-care ultrasound (PoCUS) curriculum is one of our curriculum articles and aims to be a collection of articles that represent the core applications of ultrasonography in a point-of-care setting. Point-of-care ultrasound refers to ultrasonography which may be simultaneously performed,...

Polycystic ovarian syndrome in the exam

Getting a film with polycystic ovarian syndrome in a subfertile patient is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound show an anteverted uterus with a normal size. There is diffuse thickening of the endometrium to 17...

Polydactyly

Polydactyly (less commonly called hyperdactyly) refers to the situation where there are more than the usual number of digits (five) in a hand or foot. It can be broadly classified as: pre-axial polydactyly: extra digit(s) towards the thumb/hallux (radially) post-axial polydactyly: extra digit(...

Prosthetic cardiac valves on chest x-ray (an approach)

Prosthetic cardiac valves are a routine finding on chest X-ray. The frequency and degree of exposure is greatest in larger hospitals with cardiothoracic centers, however, prosthetic valves are commonplace universally. Recognition of which valve has been replaced, any other related cardiothoraci...

Pulmonary nodule

Pulmonary nodules are small, rounded opacities within the pulmonary interstitium. Pulmonary nodules are common and, as the spatial resolution of CT scanners has increased, detection of smaller and smaller nodules has occurred, which are more often an incidental finding. Classification Pulmonar...

Pyrexia of unknown origin

A pyrexia of unknown origin, commonly shortened to PUO and also known as a fever of unknown origin (FUO), was originally defined in 1961 as the condition in which the core body temperature is >38.3oC for a period of three weeks or more, with no diagnosis reached after one week of inpatient inves...

Radiographic evaluation of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

Radiographic evaluation of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction involves: femoral component a line is drawn along the posterior cortex of the femur a second line is drawn along the roof of the intercondylar notch of the femur (Blumensaat line) the point of intersection of these tw...

Radiographic positioning terminology

Radiographic positioning terminology is used routinely to describe the position of the patient for taking various radiographs. Standard nomenclature is employed with respect to the anatomic position. Terminology Basic terms of relations anterior is towards the front of the body (Latin: before...

Radiological image artifact

Most artifacts in radiology refer to something seen on an image that are not present in reality but appear due to a quirk of the modality itself. Artifact is also used to describe findings that are due to things outside the patient that may obscure or distort the image, e.g. clothing, external c...

Radiology training in the Republic of Ireland

Radiology training in the Republic of Ireland is organized under the auspices of the Faculty of Radiologists at the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland. The duration of training is 5 years leading to a Certificate of Completion of Specialist Training which is a requirement for entry to the Spec...

RANO criteria for glioblastoma

Response assessment in neuro-oncology criteria (RANO), published in 2010 1, are used to assess response to first-line treatment of glioblastoma (as well as lower grade astrocytoma 3) and have largely superseded the older Macdonald criteria (which only dealt with glioblastoma multiforme) 2. For ...

Rapid ultrasound in shock

The rapid ultrasound in shock (RUSH) protocol is a structured point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) examination performed at the time of presentation of a shocked patient. It is a more detailed and longer exam than the FAST scan, with the aim to differentiate between hypovolemic, cardiogenic, obstruc...

Reactive vs malignant lymph nodes (ultrasound features)

A number of sonographic features are helpful in distinguishing reactive versus malignant lymph nodes. Grey scale features Features that favor reactive/infective nodes over malignancy include: nodal matting surrounding soft tissue edema Doppler features Doppler examination is particularly u...

Red and yellow flags for guiding imaging of lower back pain

Lower back pain (also known as lumbago) is very common and often referred for imaging, with the vast majority of cases due to benign self-limiting causes which don't require imaging and resolve with conservative measures. Numerous authors have described various methods for supporting appropriate...

Renal artery stenosis

Renal artery stenosis (RAS) refers to a narrowing of a renal artery. When the process occurs slowly, it leads to secondary hypertension. Acute renal artery stenosis does not lead to hypersecretion of renin. Pathology When the stenosis occurs slowly, collateral vessels form and supply the kidne...

Renal transplant ultrasound

The central approach of renal transplant ultrasound is to evaluate for possibly treatable surgical or medical complications arising in the transplanted kidney. Institutions vary in the exact schedule of renal transplant ultrasound assessment, but it is common to obtain an initial ultrasound 24-...

Reporting tips for aortic aneurysms

When issuing an MRI or CT report on a patient with an aortic aneurysm, whether it be thoracic or abdominal, a number of features should be mentioned to aid the referring clinician in managing the patient. Reporting tips for aortic aneurysms include 1,2: size and shape sac dimensions (outer sur...

Retained barium in appendix

Retained barium in appendix refers to the presence of barium in appendix beyond 72 hours from the start of procedure. Proposed significance Previously used as a sign of appendicitis. Actual significance Retained barium outlining the appendiceal lumen allows evaluation of its width and contou...

Reticular and linear pulmonary opacification

In chest radiology, reticular and linear opacification refers to a broad subgroup of pulmonary opacification caused by a decrease in the gas to soft tissue ratio due to a pathological process centered in or around the pulmonary interstitium. This includes thickening of any of the interstitial co...

Retrosternal airspace

The retrosternal airspace is seen as a normal lucency between the posterior aspect of the sternum and anterior aspect of the ascending aorta on lateral chest radiographs. This space normally measures less than 2.5 cm in width. Increased retrosternal airspace is a sign of pulmonary emphysema, whi...

Retrotracheal space

The retrotracheal space (or Raider triangle) is a radiolucent mediastinal space best seen on lateral chest x-rays. It is normally triangular in shape but can vary greatly in size and shape depending on the patient's body habitus and lung volume 1. Boundaries anterior: posterior tracheal stripe...

Reversal of umbilical arterial end diastolic flow

Reversal of umbilical artery end-diastolic flow (REDF) or velocity is often an ominous finding if detected after 16 weeks. It is classified as Class III in severity in abnormal umbilical arterial Dopplers 6. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is at ~0.5% of all pregnancies with a much higher...

Reverse total shoulder arthroplasty

Reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (RTSA) is a type of total shoulder replacement. It is often the preferred method when there has been advanced damage to the rotator cuff as seen in rotator cuff arthropathy. Procedure The reverse total shoulder flips the normal mechanical arrangement of the ...

Review areas on chest x-ray

Review areas on a chest x-ray are common areas for missed findings, and special attention should be paid to them: lung apices: masses (e.g. Pancoast tumor), pneumothorax behind the heart: consolidation, masses, hiatus hernia below the diaphragm: free gas, lines and tubes (e.g. nasogastric tub...

Revised PIOPED criteria for diagnosis of pulmonary embolus

The revised PIOPED criteria for the diagnosis of pulmonary embolus indicate the probability of pulmonary emboli based on findings on V/Q scan (ventilation-perfusion scintigraphy). The following article reflects the revised interpretation criteria promulgated in 1993 1 based on retrospective anal...

Right paratracheal stripe

The right paratracheal stripe is a normal finding on the frontal chest x-ray and represents the right tracheal wall, adjacent pleural surfaces and any mediastinal fat between them. It is visible because of the silhouette sign created by air within the trachea medially and air within the lung lat...

Sagittal balance (C7 plumb line)

Sagittal balance forms part of the plain radiographic assessment of spinal deformity including kyphotic or lordotic deformities and scoliosis. There are numerous ways of assessing this, using various bony landmarks and angles to evaluate whether or not a normal distribution of weight and stresse...

Sagittal midline of the brain (an approach)

The sagittal midline of the brain is one of the most important sectional planes in neuroimaging. A good working knowledge of the normal neuroanatomy of the sagittal midline is essential so that the subtle abnormalities that may manifest here can be recognized. The neuroembryological development...

Saint's triad

Saint's triad is the concurrence of hiatus hernia, cholelithiasis and colonic diverticulosis. It was named after the British-South African general surgeon, Charles Frederick Morris Saint (1886–1973) 2. Although it was first published in 1948 by C J B Muller, later Head of the Department of Radio...

Satisfaction of search error

Satisfaction of search (SOS) error is a common error in diagnostic radiology. It occurs when the reporting radiologist fails to continue to search for subsequent abnormalities after identifying an initial one. This initial detection of an abnormality satisfies the "search for meaning" and the re...

Scapholunate interval

The scapholunate interval is the radiographic measurement of the scapholunate joint on PA wrist projections. Abnormal widening is indicative of injury to the scapholunate ligament that occurs with scapholunate dissociation. In adults, the normal value is usually taken as <2 mm, with an interva...

Screening for breast cancer

Screening for breast cancer includes activities which test members of asymptomatic populations for breast cancer. Many advanced countries have breast screening programs. The most widely adopted method for breast cancer screening is mammography. There are few areas in imaging fraught with more c...

Scrotal scintigraphy

Scrotal scintigraphy is a radio-isotope examination of the scrotal contents, primarily in patients presenting with scrotal pain. Indications Although, ultrasound remains the mainstay of scrotal imaging, scintigraphy can be used where the diagnosis is unclear, since ultrasound appearances for s...

Second trimester ultrasound scan

The second trimester scan is a routine ultrasound examination in many countries that is primarily used to assess fetal anatomy and detect the presence of any fetal anomalies. The second trimester extends from 13 weeks and 0 days to 27 weeks and 6 days of gestation although the majority of thes...

Selective internal radiation therapy

Selective internal radiation therapy (SIRT), also know as hepatic radioembolization, is a relatively new and developing modality for treating non-resectable liver tumors. The procedure consists of a transcatheter injection of radioactive particles via the hepatic artery. It is generally consid...

Shortened fetal humerus

Shortened fetal humerus is a morphological description and is usually defined when the humeral length falls below the 5th percentile or less than 0.9 as predicted by the biparietal diameter (BPD). It can occur in isolation or in association with a number of other anomalies. The humeral length i...

Shoulder radiograph (an approach)

Shoulder radiographs are common films to see in the Emergency Department, especially during the weekend after sporting events. Systematic review Choosing a search strategy and utilizing it consistently is a helpful method to overcome common errors seen in diagnostic radiology. The order in whi...

Shoulder radiograph (summary approach)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Shoulder radiographs are commonly performed for shoulder injury assessment and followup. Using a standard system to approach the x-ray means it is much more likely you will find the abnormality. Summary approach alignment...

Sigmoid volvulus versus cecal volvulus

The following points may be helpful to distinguish between sigmoid volvulus and cecal volvulus on plain film. Sigmoid volvulus arises in the pelvis (left lower quadrant) extends towards the right upper quadrant ahaustral in appearance sigmoid volvulus causes obstruction of the proximal larg...

Situs inversus

Situs inversus, (rare plural: sitūs inversi) short form of the Latin “situs inversus viscerum”, is a term used to describe the inverted position of chest and abdominal organs. It is called situs inversus totalis when there is a total transposition of abdominal and thoracic viscera (mirror image ...

Skeletal survey

A skeletal survey is a series of radiographs, performed systematically to cover the entire skeleton or the anatomic regions appropriate for the clinical indications. Its objective is to accurately identify focal and diffuse abnormalities of the skeleton and to differentiate them from developmen...

Sleeve gastrectomy complications

Sleeve gastrectomy complications are often evaluated by imaging. For details about the surgical procedure, please see the parental article on sleeve gastrectomy. Postoperative complications can be classified by etiology or temporality. Early complications staple line leakage clinical prese...

Small bowel follow through

Small bowel follow through (SBFT) is a fluoroscopic technique designed to obtain high-resolution images of the small bowel. The motility of the small bowel can also be grossly evaluated. Indications The small bowel follow through can be useful for evaluation of: strictures obstruction diver...

Small pulmonary nodules (HRCT chest approach)

Small pulmonary lung nodules refer to an HRCT chest imaging descriptor for 5-10 mm lung nodules and are divided into three main categories based on their distribution pattern: centrilobular perilymphatic random Terminology Radiologists often informally refer to indeterminate small pulmonary...

Sniff test

The fluoroscopic sniff test, also known as diaphragm fluoroscopy, is a quick and easy real time fluoroscopic assessment of diaphragmatic motor function (excursion). It is used most often to confirm absence of muscular contraction of the diaphragm during inspiration in patients with phrenic nerve...

Solitary pulmonary nodule (an approach)

A solitary pulmonary nodule, according to the Nomenclature Committee of the Fleischner Society, is defined as a rounded opacity, well or poorly-defined on a conventional radiograph, measuring up to 3 cm in diameter and is not associated with lymphadenopathy, atelectasis, or pneumonia. Several r...

Solitary pulmonary nodules

Solitary pulmonary nodule (SPN) is defined as a relatively well defined round or oval pulmonary parenchymal lesion equal to or smaller than 30 mm in diameter. It is surrounded by pulmonary parenchyma and/or visceral pleura and is not associated with lymphadenopathy, atelectasis, or pneumonia 9. ...

Sonographic approach to dyspnea (mnemonic)

This mnemonic will help with the sonographic approach to the critically ill patient with dyspnea: CHEST Mnemonic C: collapsed lung (pneumothorax) absence of anterior lung sliding, lung pulse, B-lines, or z-lines these artifacts arise from the pleural interface; their presence would rule ou...

Sonographic features of malignant lymph nodes

Lymphadenopathy is quite common, and it can be very difficult to differentiate malignant lymphadenopathy from reactive nodal enlargement. Several gray scale and color Doppler features favor malignancy in a lymph node. Gray scale parameters that favor malignancy size: larger-more likely malign...

Sonographic Mulder sign

The sonographic Mulder sign is used during sonography of the forefoot to investigate causes of metatarsalgia associated with Morton neuroma 1. The intermetatarsal space is predominantly composed of fat inferiorly and also contains the neurovascular bundle, not easily seen on sonography 2. Compre...

Sphincter of Oddi dysfunction

Sphincter of Oddi dysfunction is a functional disorder in which stenosis or dyskinesia of the sphincter of Oddi obstructs drainage from the common bile duct. Epidemiology The disorder is associated with history of cholecystectomy, in which case it is also called postcholecystectomy syndrome. T...

Spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) can be traumatic or non-traumatic (i.e. neoplastic/stenosis) but the syndromes associated with spinal cord injury can be seen in all etiologies. Injury to the spinal cord can be incomplete or complete and depends upon the mechanism of injury. This is important as differ...

Split bolus technique

The split bolus technique is a CT imaging investigation used in patients with hematuria aiming to put together, in a single image acquisition, both the nephrographic and renal excretory phases and thus reducing the radiation dose of the study. It is a CT protocol adopted for some institutions fo...

Standardized reports

Standardized reports may be a helpful starting point for reporting examinations. However, with practice and confidence, breaking away from the standard report is possible and, in many cases, desirable. On the other hand in some instances standardized reports facilitate the creation of automated ...

Step-oblique mammography

Step-oblique mammography is an accurate technique for determining whether a mammographic finding visible on multiple images on only one projection (but not elucidated using standard additional mammographic projections) represents a summation artefact or a true mass and for precisely localizing t...

Subcutaneous calcification (differential)

Subcutaneous calcification can be associated with a number of disorders. The list includes: dermatomyositis Ehlers-Danlos syndrome pseudoxanthoma elasticum basal cell nevus syndrome subcutaneous lipodystrophy venous thrombosis as a manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus varicose v...

Submucosal leiomyoma in the exam

Getting a film with submucosal fibroid in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound scans show an anteverted uterus with endometrium that is 7 mm wide and has a trilaminar appearance indicative of the pe...

Subpleural reticulation

Subpleural reticulation is a type of reticular interstitial pattern where the changes are typically in a peripheral subpleural distribution (i.e. adjacent to costal pleural surfaces, located ≤1 cm from the pleura according to some publications 4). Pathology It can arise in a number of patholog...

Supratentorial intracranial mass in an adult (an approach)

The identification of a supratentorial intracranial mass in an adult is a fairly common clinical scenario, the appropriate management of which relies heavily on preoperative imaging. Often important clues will be present in the clinical history (e.g. immunosuppression, systemic malignancy, durat...

Systematic chest radiograph assessment (approach)

One approach to a systematic chest radiograph assessment is as follows: projection assessment of the technical adequacy tubes and lines cardiomediastinal contours hila airways, lungs and pleura bones and soft tissue review areas Following a systematic approach on every chest radiograph ...

Tentorial angle

The tentorial angle is measured between a line connecting the nasion with the tuberculum sellae and the angle of the straight sinus. Normally it should measure between 27° and 52°. Abnormalities of the posterior fossa or base of skull can alter this. For example, this angle is elevated in achon...

Testicular and scrotal ultrasound

Testicular and scrotal ultrasound is the primary modality for imaging most of the male reproductive system. It is relatively quick, relatively inexpensive, can be correlated quickly with the patient's signs and symptoms, and, most importantly, does not employ ionizing radiation. MRI is occasion...

The four "Ds" of radiology reporting

The four "Ds" of radiology reporting are the basic sequential tasks that a radiologist performs when reporting/reading a case, whether it be in training, the exam environment or in day-to-day clinical practice. The 4 "Ds" Detect Describe Diagnosis or differential diagnoses Decision By sti...

Thoracoplasty

Thoracoplasty is a surgical procedure that was originally designed to permanently collapse the cavities of pulmonary tuberculosis by removing the ribs from the chest wall 1-3 . It involved resection of multiple ribs, allowed the apposition of parietal to the visceral or mediastinal pleura. Until...

Trabecular pattern of proximal femur

Trabecular pattern of proximal femur refers to the five groups of trabeculae that are demonstrable within the femoral head and neck. Basic concept Trabecula is a supportive and connective tissue element which form in cancellous bone. Trabeculae develop in a normal bone and also in a healing bo...

Transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI)

Transcatheter aortic valve implantation or replacement (TAVI/TAVR) is a technique to replace the aortic valve through a transvascular or transapical approach. Compared to traditional open aortic valve replacement with sternotomy and a heart-lung bypass machine, the TAVI technique is less invasiv...

Transrectal ultrasound

Transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) is a technique that is used most commonly to evaluate the prostate gland, including ultrasound-guided prostate biopsies depth of invasion of colon/rectal cancer (for staging purposes) It can also be used for guidance in placing a transrectal drain, or in rare pro...

Transthoracic echocardiography views

A standard transthoracic echocardiogram consists of five standardized windows which are obtained in a standardized sequence 1. Obtaining views from the left parasternal, apical, subcostal, and suprasternal notch windows is mandatory for a complete echocardiography protocol. The right parasternal...

Transverse view of abdomen

A transverse abdominal view is one of the standard views on fetal echocardiography and is very useful for assessing situs abnormalities. In case of situs solitus (normal situs), the stomach is on the left and liver on the right. The descending aorta lies anterior and to the left of the spine whi...

Traumatic aortic injury in the exam

Getting a film with traumatic aortic injury in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. This is one of the cases you should look and not speak for 10 seconds as there tends to be a lot of findings on the film of patients with a traumatic aortic injury. Description...

Triangle of safety

The triangle of safety is an anatomical region in the axilla that forms a guide as to the safe position for intercostal catheter (ICC) placement. With the arm abducted, the apex is the axilla, and the triangle is formed by the: lateral border of the pectoralis major anteriorly lateral border o...

Triangulation

Triangulation is a technique for localizing lesions seen on at least two views on 2D mammography. Technique hang the CC, MLO, and 90° lateral films (in that order) on the view box the nipple on each film must be at the same level use a ruler and place one end over the lesion on the 90° later...

Triple screening

Triple screening refers to a screening blood test that is used to screen pregnant women for possible neural tube defects, Down syndrome and trisomy 18 in the developing fetus. It measures: alpha-fetoprotein Beta hCG unconjugated estriol Interpretation An abnormal test result doesn't indica...

Tuberculosis (musculoskeletal manifestations)

Musculoskeletal tuberculosis is always secondary to a primary lesion in the lung. Epidemiology The prevalence of the disease is around 30 million globally and 1-3% of the 30 million have involvement of their bones and/or joints. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is responsible for almost all of the c...

Tumor pseudoresponse

Tumor pseudoresponse, also known just as pseudoresponse, refers to the phenomenon of tumors appearing to respond to a specific treatment on imaging criteria, when the lesion actually remains stable or has even progressed. The term is largely used in brain tumors imaging follow-up, especially fo...

Tumors of the base of skull (differential diagnosis)

Tumors of the base of skull are histologically varied and are often challenging to preoperatively diagnose and treat. Exactly which tumors are considered to be tumors of the base of skull is debatable. The broadest definition would include any tumor that involves or abuts the base of skull, thu...

Tumors that metastasize to bone (mnemonic)

Tumors that metastasize to bone may be remembered using the mnemonic "lead kettle" spelled PBKTL (lead is Pb on the Periodic Table). PB-KTL Mnemonic P: prostate B: breast K: kidney T: thyroid L: lung For females, breast and lung are the most common primary sites; nearly 80% of cancers th...

Two diameter pocket method

The two diameter pocket (TDP) method is an alternative method of assessing amniotic fluid volumes on ultrasound. However, it is not thought to be a good predictor of adverse neonatal outcome 2. Sonographic assessment According to this method 1,2: TDP <15 cm2: indicative of oligohydramnios TD...

Ultrasound assessment of carotid arterial atherosclerotic disease

Ultrasound assessment of carotid arterial atherosclerotic disease has become the first choice for carotid artery stenosis screening, permitting the evaluation of both the macroscopic appearance of plaques as well as flow characteristics in the carotid artery. This article focus on internal caro...

Ultrasound evaluation of breast cysts

Ultrasound evaluation of breast cysts is the modality of choice. Obstruction of the ducts, often appearing as the result of epithelial hyperplastic processes or the stromal fibrosis, or both processes lead to the formation of cysts, disabling the drainage of the terminal ducts of the lobules. I...

Ultrasound guided breast biopsy

Ultrasound guided percutaneous breast biopsy is a widely used technique for an accurate histopathological assessment of suspected breast pathology. It is a fast, safe and economical procedure. Indications Ultrasound guidance is limited to lesions visible on ultrasound study. Biopsy is generall...

Ultrasound-guided FNA of the thyroid

Ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration (FNA) of the thyroid refers to a minimally invasive procedure where in which tissue samples are collected from a thyroid nodule or other suspicious thyroid lesion. It is usually done on a outpatient basis and generally complications are very minimal. Pro...

Ultrasound of the elbow

Ultrasound of the elbow allows high-resolution imaging of elbow anatomy while simultaneously allowing dynamic evaluation of the joint, tendons, and ligaments. Approach There are multiple possible approaches to imaging the elbow with ultrasound. A typical protocol is as follows 1: Anterior elb...

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