Articles
Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.
177 results found
Article
Acetabular index
The acetabular index also called acetabular roof angle or Tönnis angle is a radiographic measurement of femoral head bony coverage by the acetabulum. It is useful in assessing for developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) as well as pincer morphology in femoroacetabular impingement (FAI).
Measur...
Article
Ahlbäck classification of knee osteoarthritis
The Ahlbäck classification is one of many ways to grade knee osteoarthritis.
Classification
grade 1: joint space narrowing (less than 3 mm)
grade 2: joint space obliteration
grade 3: minor bone attrition (0-5 mm)
grade 4: moderate bone attrition (5-10 mm)
grade 5: severe bone attrition (mo...
Article
Allen and Ferguson classification of subaxial cervical spine injuries
Allen and Ferguson classification is used for research purposes to classify subaxial spine injuries. It is based ofn the mechanism of injury and position of the neck during injury. This classification was proposed by Allen and Ferguson in 19823 and at the time of writing (July 2016) remains the ...
Article
American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons classification of periprosthetic hip fractures
The American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons classification of periprosthetic hip fractures divides the femur into three separate regions:
level I: proximal femur distally to the lower extent of the lesser trochanter
level II: 10 cm of femur distal to level I
level III: femur distal to level...
Article
Anderson and D'Alonzo classification of odontoid process fracture
The Anderson and D'Alonzo classification is the most commonly used classification of fractures of the odontoid process of C2.
Classification
type I
rare
fracture of the upper part of the odontoid peg (generally obliquely)
above the level of the transverse band of the cruciform ligament
usu...
Article
Ankle fractures
Ankle fractures account for ~10% of fractures encountered in trauma, preceded only in incidence by proximal femoral fractures in the lower limb. They have a bimodal presentation, involving young males and older females. Ankle injuries play a major part in post multitrauma functional impairment t...
Article
Ankle injection (disambiguation)
Ankle injection is a general term which can refer to an intra-articular ankle injection but also other injections, particularly by patients, which include:
Achilles hydrodilation and microtenotomy
ankle joint injection
MRI arthrogram
CT arthrogram
anesthetic arthrogram
extensor tendon she...
Article
Anterior cruciate ligament avulsion fracture
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) avulsion fracture or tibial eminence avulsion fracture is a type of avulsion fracture of the knee. This typically involves separation of the tibial attachment of the ACL to variable degrees. Separation at the femoral attachment is rare 5.
Epidemiology
It is mor...
Article
AO classification of clavicle fractures
The AO classification of clavicular fractures along with the Neer classification system is one of the more frequently used classification systems when assessing distal clavicular fractures.
Classification
The classification system, broken into three categories focuses on the displacement and p...
Article
AO classification of proximal humeral fractures
The AO classification of proximal humeral fractures, along with the Neer classification, is one of the most frequently used systems for classifying proximal humeral fractures.
The AO classification divides proximal humeral fractures into three groups, A, B and C, each with subgroups, and place...
Article
AO classification of subaxial injuries
The AO Spine classification of subaxial injuries aims to simplify and universalise the classification of subaxial cervical spine fractures and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability.
Usage
Although its existence is widely known among the relevant subspecialty groups, its day-to-da...
Article
AO Spine classification of sacral injuries
The AO Spine classification of sacral injuries aims to simplify and universalise the process of classifying sacral injuries and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability.
The AO Spine sacral classification is broken into three subsections that follow a hierarchical structure similar t...
Article
AO spine classification of thoracolumbar injuries
The AO Spine classification of thoracolumbar injuries is one of the more commonly used thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification systems and aims to simplify and universalise the process of classifying spinal injuries and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability 3.
Unlike the othe...
Article
AO Spine classification of upper cervical injuries
The AO Spine classification of upper cervical injuries aims to simplify and universalise the process of classifying upper cervical injuries and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability.
Usage
Although in routine clinical practice, at least in many institutions, injuries will be desc...
Article
AO Spine classification systems
The AO Spine classification systems is a group of imaging morphology-based classification system, combined with clinical factors for injury of spinal trauma. It is designed to be a simple and reproducible method of describing injury patterns.
AO Spine has published four injury classification sy...
Article
ARCO classification of osteonecrosis
The ARCO classification (Association Research Circulation Osseous classification) is one of the staging systems used in the assessment of the femoral head osteonecrosis. It was originally created in 1994 and periodically revised. The most recent revision from 20192 includes the use of radiograph...
Article
Arnold-Hilgartner classification of haemophilic arthropathy
Arnold-Hilgartner classification is a plain radiograph grading system for haemophilic arthropathy of the knee 1,2:
stage 0: normal joint
stage I: no skeletal abnormalities, soft-tissue swelling is present
stage II: osteoporosis and overgrowth of the epiphysis, no cysts, no narrowing of the ca...
Article
ASAS sacroiliitis classification system
First published in 2009 with a revised consensus in 2016, the Assessment in SpondyloArthritis International Society (ASAS) classification system utilizes imaging features of the sacroiliac joints on MR imaging to assist in characterizing the presence of sacroiliitis.
The ASAS classification is ...
Article
ASIA impairment scale for spinal injury
The American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale was developed by the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) in 2006, was revised in 2011, and remains the most widely used neurologic classification of spinal cord injury.
Classification
The scale divides spinal cord injuries into 5 ca...
Article
Atzei classification of peripheral TFCC tears
The Atzei classification of peripheral triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) tears offers a more differentiated approach on a spectrum of peripherally located triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) tears, which are classically summarized as “Palmer 1b” lesions 1-3.
Usage
Peripheral lesion...
Article
Bado classification of Monteggia fracture-dislocations
The Bado classification is one of the more widely used classifications for Monteggia fracture-dislocations and mainly focuses on the radial component. Four types are recognized and are generally based on the principle that the direction in which the apex of the ulnar fracture points is the same ...
Article
Bent bone dysplasias (differential)
Bent bone dysplasias are a class of dysplasia included in a 2010 classification of genetic skeletal disorders 1.
campomelic dysplasia
Stuve-Weidemann dysplasia
kyphomelic dysplasias, a diverse class, including
congenital bowing of the long bones
cartilage-hair hypoplasia (CHH; metaphyseal d...
Article
Berndt and Harty classification
Berndt and Harty classification is used for osteochondral lesions of the talus.
Classification
stage I: subchondral bone compression (marrow edema)
stage II
stage IIa: subchondral cyst
stage IIb: incomplete separation of fragment
stage III: complete separation but no displacement
stage IV...
Article
Bone tumors
There are a bewildering number of bone tumors with a wide variety of radiological appearances:
bone-forming tumors
osteoid osteoma
osteoblastoma
osteoma
osteosarcoma
cartilage-forming tumors
enchondroma
enchondromatosis-Ollier disease
Maffucci syndrome
osteochondroma:
hereditary multi...
Article
Brachydactyly type A1 (Farabee type)
Brachydactyly type A1, also known as Farabee type brachydactyly, is a subtype of brachydactyly.
Clinical presentation
The anomaly is characterized by hypoplasia or aplasia of middle phalanges of the second to fifth digits in hands and feet and proximal phalanges of the thumbs and great toes...
Article
Brachydactyly type A2 (Mohr-Wriedt type)
Brachydactyly type A2 or Mohr-Wriedt type is characterized by hypoplasia/aplasia of the second middle phalanx of the index finger, second toe and sometimes little finger. There is radial deviation of the index finger and tibial deviation of the second toe.
Pathology
Type A2 brachydactyly can b...
Article
Brachydactyly type A3
Brachydactyly type A3 is characterized by shortening of the middle phalanx of the little finger with radial deviation of distal phalanx. Slanting of the distal articular surface of the middle phalanx leads to radial deflection of the distal phalanx. However, it is not always associated with clin...
Article
Brachydactyly type A4 (Temtamy type)
Brachydactyly type A4 or Temtamy type is characterized by brachymesophalangy (absent or hypoplastic middle phalanx) of the second and fifth fingers. Other less common features include club foot, clinodactyly, ulnar deviation of the second finger.
Pathology
Like other brachydactyly, type A4 is ...
Article
Brachydactyly type A5
Brachydactyly type A5 is characterized by absence of the middle phalanges and nail dysplasia with duplicated terminal phalanx of the thumb with resultant bifid thumb. Inheritance is suggested as autosomal dominant.
Article
British Athletics muscle injury classification
The British Athletics muscle injury classification (BAMIC/BAC) is a five-point MRI-based system that is based on extent and site. It has been primarily based on hamstring injuries but is used in other muscle injuries. The classification system has been shown to have moderate inter- and intra-rat...
Article
Capsulolabral insertion classification
Capsulolabral insertion classification reflects the variation in the relationship between the glenoid labrum and the anterior shoulder joint capsule.
Classification
type 1: capsule inserts into the labrum proper
type 2: capsule inserts into the base of the labrum, or within 1 cm of the base
...
Article
Castellvi classification of lumbosacral transitional vertebrae
The Castellvi classification is used for lumbosacral transitional vertebra (LSTV):
type I: enlarged and dysplastic transverse process (at least 19 mm)
Ia: unilateral
Ib: bilateral
type II: pseudoarticulation of the transverse process and sacrum with incomplete lumbarization/sacralization; en...
Article
Catterall classification of Perthes disease
The Catterall classification of Perthes disease is based on radiographic appearances of the epiphysis and metaphysis visible in osteonecrosis of the femoral head:
stage I
bone absorption changes visible in the anterior aspect of the epiphysis of femoral head
changes are visible best in frog l...
Article
Cervical degenerative spondylosis (grading)
Cervical degenerative disease can be graded using a very old but reliable classification given by Kellgren et al. It is based on findings on a lateral cervical spine radiograph although it can also be applied to MRI evaluation of spine.
The key parameters are osteophyte formation, intervertebra...
Article
Cervical spine fracture classification systems
There are several cervical spine fracture classification systems:
Anderson and D'Alonzo classification (odontoid fracture)
Roy-Camille classification (odontoid fracture)
Levine and Edwards classification (for traumatic injuries to axis)
Allen and Ferguson classification (subaxial spine injur...
Article
Classification of gamekeeper thumb
This classification of gamekeeper's thumb (also known as skier's thumb) was proposed by Hintermann et al. 1 in 1993 and is based on whether a fracture is present and whether the injury is stable:
type I
fracture present, which is non-displaced and stable in flexion
typically treated with a sp...
Article
Classification of proximal focal femoral deficiency
Classification of proximal femoral deficiency (PFFD) can be complicated and numerous such classifications have been proposed. For a discussion of the condition refer to the article proximal focal femoral deficiency.
One of the simplest and most widely used is that proposed by Aitken 1 which is ...
Article
Classification of sacral fractures
There are several classification systems for sacral fractures, but the most commonly employed are the Denis classification and subclassification systems, and the Isler classification system. These classification systems are important to understand as proper classification can impact management.
...
Article
Close reduction-internal fixation
Closed reduction-internal fixation, abbreviated to CRIF, refers to the orthopedic operative management of a fracture (or fracture-dislocation complex) where closed reduction is performed (manipulation) and internal fixation is applied, usually in the form of K-wires to stabilize the fracture.
C...
Article
Cooke and Newman classification
The Cooke and Newman classification of periprosthetic hip fractures is a modification of the Bethea classification proposed several years earlier.
type I
explosion type fracture, comminuted around the stem of the implant
the prosthesis is always loose and the fracture is inherently unstable
...
Article
Coronoid process fracture
Fractures of the coronoid process of the ulna are uncommon and often occur in association with elbow dislocation.
Pathology
Mechanism
Fracture of the coronoid process is thought to result from elbow hyperextension with either avulsion of the brachialis tendon insertion or shearing off by the...
Article
Coughlin classification
The Coughlin classification is the most widely used to type bunionettes. It relies on simple angle measurements on weight-bearing foot radiographs taken in the dorsoplantar projection 1,2. In 2013 DiDomenico et al added type IV 2.
Classification
type I: enlarged lateral surface of the head of ...
Article
Dameron-Lawrence-Botte classification of proximal 5th metatarsal fractures
The Dameron-Lawrence-Botte classification, or Lawrence-Botte classification, is a commonly used nomenclature for proximal fifth metatarsal fractures, which are categorized into one of three anatomic zones of involvement:
zone 1: tuberosity (styloid process) avulsion fracture
involving proxima...
Article
de Carvalho index (knee)
The de Carvalho index is used to measure patellar height and identify patella alta. Similar to the Caton-Deschamps index, it relies upon the length of the patellar articular surface and its distance from the tibia, reducing erroneous measurements in those with long patella bodies, as measured in...
Article
Degloving injury
Degloving injuries can refer to a number of conditions:
degloving soft tissue injury
Morel-Lavallée lesion (closed degloving soft tissue injury)
intramuscular degloving injury
degloving bowel injury
Article
Delbet classification
The Delbet classification helps predict the risk of avascular necrosis of the femoral head in neck of femur fractures, as well as determine operative vs non-operative management.
Classification
type I: trans-epiphyseal separation
fracture through proximal femoral physis, and represents Salte...
Article
Deltoid ligament injury
Deltoid ligament injuries involve the deltoid ligament that forms the medial part of the ankle joint. It attaches the medial malleolus to multiple tarsal bones.
Pathology
Mechanism of injury
It occurs due to eversion and/or pronation injury, or can be associated with lateral ankle fractures.
...
Article
Depositional arthropathy
Depositional arthropathy refers to a group of joint disorders caused by the depositional of substances within and/or around joints.
Diseases include:
crystal arthropathy
calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate deposition disease (CPPD)
gout
hydroxyapatite crystal deposition disease (HADD)
haemop...
Article
Distal fibula fracture (basic)
This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists
Distal fibula fractures are the most common type at the ankle and are usually the result of an inversion injury with or without rotation. They are the extension of a lateral collateral ligament injury.
Background
Pathophy...
Article
Eaton classification of volar plate avulsion injury
The Eaton classification was proposed by Eaton and Malerich in 1980, and presently (time of writing, August 2016) along with Keifhaber-Stern classification, is the most widely accepted classification of volar plate avulsion injuries 1.
Knowledge of the orthopedic Eaton classification is practi...
Article
Elbow injection (disambiguation)
Elbow injection usually refers to an elbow joint injection, but especially to patients, it can be a term used referring to other procedures which include:
common extensor origin microtenotomy
common flexor origin microtenotomy
distal biceps tendon sheath injection
elbow joint injection
MRI ...
Article
Elbow instability
Elbow instability refers to as an excessive, usually painful, mobility in the elbow joint, most of the time as a result of a prior traumatic event or overuse and maybe also seen in patients with connective tissue disease 1,2.
Classification
Elbow instability can be classified in respect of tim...
Article
Ficat and Arlet classification of avascular necrosis of femoral head
The Ficat and Arlet classification uses a combination of plain radiographs, MRI, and clinical features to stage avascular necrosis of the femoral head.
Classification
stage 0
plain radiograph: normal
MRI: normal
clinical symptoms: nil
stage I
plain radiograph: normal or minor osteopenia
...
Article
Ficat classification of osteonecrosis
The Ficat classification of osteonecrosis is based on radiographic findings. In 1985 Dr Ficat published a modified version of his initial classification in 1980:
Stage 0
preclinical and preradiographic
diagnosis is suspected in one hip when the other has a definite disease - this is the stage...
Article
Foot injection (disambiguation)
Foot injection is a non-specific term, often used by patients, in reference to tarsal or metatarsal joint injections, and to other injections which include:
calcaneocuboid joint injection
metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPJ) injection
naviculocuneiform joint injection
plantar fascia microtenoto...
Article
Fractures of the extremities (general rules and nomenclature)
General rules and nomenclature of fractures should be understood by, and familiar to, anyone involved in the interpretation or management of fractures of the extremities. This article covers basic nomenclature of fractures.
Classification systems
Before the most appropriate treatment for a fr...
Article
Frykman classification of distal radial fractures
The Frykman classification of distal radial fractures is based on the AP appearance and encompasses the eponymous entities of Colles fracture, Smith fracture, Barton fracture, chauffeur fracture. It assesses the pattern of fractures, involvement of the radioulnar joint and presence of a distal u...
Article
Garden classification of hip fractures
The Garden classification of subcapital femoral neck fractures is the most widely used. It is simple and predicts the development of AVN 1,2. Garden described particular femoral neck and acetabular trabeculae patterns which can assist in recognizing differences within this classification system ...
Article
Gartland classification of supracondylar humeral fractures
The Gartland classification of supracondylar fractures of the humerus is based on the degree and direction of displacement, and the presence of intact cortex. It applies to extension supracondylar fractures rather than the rare flexion supracondylar fracture.
Classification
type I: undisplaced...
Article
Genant classification of vertebral fractures
The Genant classification of vertebral fractures is based on the vertebral shape, with respect to vertebral height loss involving the anterior, posterior, and/or middle vertebral body.
grade 0: normal
grade 1: mild fracture, <25% loss of height
grade 2: moderate fracture, 25% to 40% loss of h...
Article
Gertzbein and Robbins classification
The Gertzbein and Robbins classification assesses the position of transpedicular screws.
Classification
and ranges from A to E, including 1-3,
A: fully intrapedicular position
B: exceeding the pedicle cortex below <2 mm
C: exceeding the pedicle cortex 2-4 mm
D: exceeding the pedicle cortex...
Article
Gilula three carpal arcs
Gilula three carpal arcs refer to the carpal alignment described on posteroanterior or anteroposterior wrist radiographs and are used to assess normal alignment of the carpus:
first arc: is a smooth curve outlining the proximal convexities of the scaphoid, lunate and triquetrum
second arc: tra...
Article
Goutallier classification of rotator cuff muscle fatty degeneration
The Goutallier classification is a classification system used to quantify the amount of fatty degeneration of the rotator cuff muscles, particularly in the context of rotator cuff tendon tears. Although originally described in shoulder CT 1, it is applicable and now most commonly used in MR. It ...
Article
Grading of brachial plexus injuries
According to CT myelography, brachial plexus injuries can be classified into six types 1:
N type: normal root sleeve and nerve roots
A1 type: slightly deformed root sleeves and nerve roots as compared to unaffected site
A2 type: obliteration of the tip of root sleeves and deformed thickened n...
Article
Graf method for ultrasound classification of developmental dysplasia of the hip
The Graf method for ultrasound classification system for developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) in infants, combines both alpha and beta angles. There are a number of additional subdivisions, which are often not used clinically.
As a general rule, the alpha angle determines the type and in s...
Article
Gustilo Anderson classification
The Gustilo Anderson classification, also known as the Gustilo classification, is the most widely accepted classification system of open (or compound) fractures.
The grading system is used to guide management of compound fractures, with higher grade injuries associated with higher risk of compl...
Article
Harris classification of acetabular fractures
The Harris classification of acetabular fractures is based on definitions of acetabular walls and columns that differ from the Judet and Letournel classification 1.
Usage
The Judet and Letournel classification is more widely used and is applicable to both CT and plain radiographs, whereas, the...
Article
Herring (Lateral Pillar) classification of Legg-Calvè-Perthes disease
Classification of Legg-Calvè-Perthes disease based on the height of the lateral pillar:
Group A : No involvement of the lateral pillar with no density changes identified.
Group B : at least 50% of the lateral pillar height maintained
Group C: less than 50% of the lateral pillar maintained
Th...
Article
Hip injection (disambiguation)
Hip injection can refer to an intra-articular injection, but especially to patients, it can be a term used referring to other procedures around the hip which include:
common hamstrings origin microtenotomy
gluteus minimus/ medius calcific tendinopathy barbotage
greater trochanteric bursa inje...
Article
Ideberg classification of glenoid fossa fractures
The Ideberg classification system is the most common system used to describe glenoid fossa and rim fractures 1. Glenoid fractures are uncommon fractures of the shoulder but are important to recognize as they are often associated with concomitant injuries to chest, head, brachial plexus and humer...
Article
International Myeloma Working Group response criteria
The International Myeloma Working Group response criteria are consensus definitions used to assess response to treatment of multiple myeloma. With the latest version published in 2016, the criteria have been widely adopted for classifying responses in clinical trials and in routine practice 1. I...
Article
Johansson classification
The Johansson classification of periprosthetic hip fractures was the first classification system proposed and is the simplest. It is based on the level of the fracture in relation to the prosthesis.
type I: fracture proximal to the tip of the prosthesis with the stem still in contact with the m...
Article
Judet and Letournel classification for acetabular fractures
The Judet and Letournel classification is the most widely used classification system for acetabular fractures. It classifies acetabular fractures into ten major fracture patterns, which consist of five simple patterns and five complex patterns 1,2.
Classification
The morphology of fracture pa...
Article
Keifhaber-Stern classification of volar plate avulsion injuries of hand
The Keifhaber-Stern classification was proposed originally by Hastings and later modified by Keifhaber and Stern in 1998. This classification, along with the Eaton classification, is the most widely accepted classification at the time of writing (August 2016) for the management of volar plate av...
Article
Kellgren and Lawrence system for classification of osteoarthritis
The Kellgren and Lawrence system is a common method of classifying the severity of osteoarthritis (OA) using five grades.
The original paper 1 graded OA at the following sites and projections:
hands: posteroanterior
cervical spine: lateral
lumbar spine (facet joints only): lateral
hips: an...
Article
Knee injection (disambiguation)
Knee injection is a general term and can be made in reference, especially by patients, to multiple procedures which include:
common peroneal (fibular) nerve injection
knee joint injection
MRI arthrogram
CT arthrogram
anesthetic arthrogram
patella tendon microtenotomy
quadriceps tendon mic...
Article
Kuwada classification of Achilles tendon tear
The Kuwada classification of Achilles tendon tear was proposed in 1990 4 and at the time of writing (July 2016) remains the most widely used system for describing achilles tendon rupture.
Classification
Achilles tendon tears may be grouped (according to severity of the tear and degree of retr...
Article
Langenskiold classification of Blount disease
The Langenskiold Classification of Blount disease uses age and severity of deformity as grading parameters.
Classification
Six stage radiographic classification of infantile tibia vara, which is based on changes observed as the child matured:
stage I: 2-3 years
irregularity of metaphyseal os...
Article
Langer Saldino syndrome
The Langer Saldino syndrome or achondrogenesis type II is a subtype of achondrogenesis. It is an extremely rare fatal skeletal dysplasia.
Pathology
Genetics
Majority of cases are sporadic. Autosomal dominant inheritance is also another mode. There is mutation in the collagen type II gene (COL...
Article
Lateral humeral condyle fracture
Lateral humeral condyle fractures also referred to simply as lateral condyle fractures (in the appropriate context), are relatively common elbow fractures that predominantly occur in children. They may be subtle but are hugely important to diagnose in a timely manner because if they are missed, ...
Article
Lateral humeral line
The lateral humeral line is used to confirm the alignment of the pediatric radiocapitellar joint in the coronal plane 1. This is particularly important in injuries such as a Monteggia fracture-dislocation or in a radial neck fracture.
Measurement
The lateral humeral line is drawn on a pediatri...
Article
Lauge-Hansen classification of ankle injury
The Lauge-Hansen classification system is used for the classification of the ankle injuries based on injury mechanisms which have predictable patterns and imaging findings. Along with the Weber classification, these systems are useful tools for describing and classifying ankle injuries.
Classif...
Article
Le Fort fracture classification
Le Fort fractures are fractures of the midface, which collectively involve separation of all or a portion of the midface from the skull base. In order to be separated from the skull base, the pterygoid plates of the sphenoid bone need to be involved as these connect the midface to the sphenoid b...
Article
Levine and Edwards classification
Levine and Edwards classification is used to classify hangman fractures of C2 (also known as traumatic spondylolisthesis of axis).
Classification
type I: fracture with <3 mm antero-posterior deviation
no angular deviation
type II: fracture with >3 mm antero-posterior deviation
significant a...
Article
Lodwick classification of lytic bone lesions
The Lodwick classification is a system for describing the margins of a lytic bone lesion (or lucent bone lesion). The terms used in the description suggest the level of concern for an aggressive, and possibly malignant, process.
Classification
type 1: geographic
1A: thin, sclerotic margin
1B...
Article
Lumbar foraminal stenosis
Lumbar foraminal stenosis or lumbar neuroforaminal stenosis is a common cause of back pain and/or radiculopathy, and is assessed for as part of the routine evaluation of lumbar MRI studies to determine what impact, if any, the surrounding structures have on the exiting nerve root.
Anatomy
In ...
Article
Lunate morphology
Several classification systems exist for the lunate morphology 1, 2.
Classification
The lunate classification proposed by Viegas et al. is arguably the most relevant 3:
type I lunate: single distal articular facet for the capitate
type II lunate: additional distal articular facet medially f...
Article
Magerl classification of thoracolumbar spinal fractures
The Magerl classification, one of many thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification systems, was adopted as the original AO classification in 1994 but has since then been superseded: see the current AO classification of thoracolumbar injuries.
Usage
Although the Magerl classification is based ...
Article
Main differentials in musculoskeletal imaging
Here is a list of some of the most useful differential diagnoses in musculoskeletal imaging.
By process
lucent/lytic bone lesions (FEGNOMASHIC)
multiple lucent/lytic bone lesions
benign lytic bone lesions in patients under 30 years old
diffuse bony sclerosis
permeative process in bone
pse...
Article
Mason classification of radial head fractures
The Mason classification is used to classify radial head fractures and is useful when assessing further treatment options 1-2.
type I: non-displaced radial head fractures (or small marginal fractures), also known as a "chisel" fracture
type II: partial articular fractures with displacement (>2...
Article
Mayfield classification of carpal instability (perilunate instability)
Mayfield classification of carpal instability, also known as perilunate instability classification (carpal dislocations), describes carpal ligament injuries.
Instability has been divided into four stages 1-2:
stage I: scapholunate dissociation (rotatory subluxation of the scaphoid)
disruptio...
Article
Mayo classification of scaphoid fractures
Mayo classification of scaphoid fractures divides them into three types according to the anatomic location of the fracture line:
middle (70%)
distal (20%)
proximal (10%)
Fractures of the distal third are further divided into distal articular surface and distal tubercle fractures:
distal tub...
Article
McAfee classification of thoracolumbar spinal fractures
McAfee classification of acute traumatic spinal injuries is one of a number of thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification systems and based on the three-column concept of the spine (of Denis). It requires CT for an accurate assessment.
Usage
The McAfee classification uses terminology that is...
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