Articles
Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.
819 results found
Article
≤11 ribs (differential)
≤11 ribs is associated with a number of congenital abnormalities and skeletal dysplasias, including:
Down syndrome (trisomy 21)
campomelic dysplasia
kyphomelic dysplasias
asphyxiating thoracic dysplasia (Jeune syndrome)
short rib polydactyly syndromes
trisomy 18
chromosome 1q21.1 deletion...
Article
Abnormally thickened endometrium (differential)
Abnormally thickened endometrium on imaging may occur for a number of reasons which may be categorised based on whether or not they are related to pregnancy. Aetiologies may also be classified based on whether the patient is premenopausal or postmenopausal.
Differential diagnosis
Pregnancy-rel...
Article
Abnormal testicular Doppler flow (differential)
Abnormal testicular Doppler flow (arterial, venous, or both) can be a differential challenge. Always remember that the patient's presenting history helps quite a bit in narrowing the differential.
Reduced flow
partial testicular torsion (<360 degrees)
venous outflow is obstructed first, resul...
Article
Absent fetal stomach on ultrasound (differential)
Non-visualisation of the fetal stomach on ultrasound can occur with various physiological as well as pathological processes. It becomes a significant sonographic observation >14 weeks of gestation (about the time the fetus begins to swallow).
Causes include:
physiological emptying: transient
...
Article
Acetabular sector angle
The acetabular sector angles are a set of angles, comprising the anterior acetabular sector angle (AASA), the posterior acetabular sector angle (PASA) and horizontal acetabular sector angle (HASA) and are used on cross-sectional imaging, especially pelvic CT, for the evaluation of acetabular cov...
Article
Acetabular sourcil
The acetabular sourcil is a radiographic feature seen on plain radiographs of the hip and pelvis as well as coronal CT reformats and MR images. It refers to as the roof or the weight-bearing area of the acetabulum and is characterised by an increased degree of sclerosis.
Its medial and lateral ...
Article
Achilles tendon thickening
Achilles tendon thickening can occur for a number of reasons.
The Achilles tendon has an average AP diameter of 6 mm 1. Thickening of the tendon is when it exceeds 8 mm in AP diameter and can result from:
Achilles tendinosis/tear
post-surgical thickening
retrocalcaneal bursitis
degeneration...
Article
Acro-osteolysis
Acro-osteolysis (plural: acro-osteolyses) refers to resorption of the distal phalanx. The terminal tuft is most commonly affected. It is associated with a heterogeneous group of pathological entities and, some of which can be remembered by using the mnemonic PINCH FO.
When there is linear bone ...
Article
Acute airspace opacification with lymphadenopathy (differential)
Acute airspace opacification with lymphadenopathy is a subset of the differential diagnosis for generalised airspace opacification and includes:
post-obstructive causes (usually chronic, but 'new' changes can occur)
primary lung cancer
pulmonary metastases
lymphoma/leukaemia
infection
pri...
Article
Acute bilateral airspace opacification (differential)
Acute bilateral airspace opacification is a subset of the larger differential diagnosis for airspace opacification. An exhaustive list of all possible causes of acute bilateral airspace opacities is long, but a useful way to consider the huge list is via the material within the airways:
infecti...
Article
Acute unilateral airspace opacification (differential)
Acute unilateral airspace opacification is a subset of the differential diagnosis for airspace opacification.
Differential diagnosis
The exhaustive list of all possible causes would be huge, but a useful framework includes:
pus, i.e. pulmonary infection
bacterial pneumonia
fungal pneumoni...
Article
Adrenal calcification
Adrenal calcification is not a rare finding in healthy asymptomatic people and is usually the result of previous haemorrhage or tuberculosis. Addison disease patients only occasionally develop calcification.
Pathology
Aetiology
Haemorrhage
sepsis: Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome
blunt abd...
Article
Adult cervical lymphadenopathy (differential)
Cervical lymphadenopathy in an adult can result from a vast number of conditions. They include:
malignancy
metastases
from head and neck tumours
lymphoma
other neoplastic lesions
Castleman disease
Kaposi sarcoma
infection
bacterial infection
viral infection
Epstein-Barr virus
herpes...
Article
Air space opacification
Air space opacification is a descriptive term that refers to filling of the pulmonary tree with material that attenuates x-rays more than the surrounding lung parenchyma. It is one of the many patterns of lung opacification and is equivalent to the pathological diagnosis of pulmonary consolidati...
Article
Air space opacities
The differential for air space opacities is extensive, and needs to be interpreted in context of chronicity (previous imaging) and clinical context. It is therefore useful to divide airspace opacities as follows:
acute airspace opacities with lymph node enlargement
acute airspace opacities: un...
Article
Altered breast density between two mammograms
Mammographic screening detects early breast cancers and thereby reduces potential mortality. However, its sensitivity is inversely related to breast density 1.
Altered density between two mammograms can arise in a number of situations:
Affecting both breasts:
interval commencement/cessation ...
Article
Alternating radiolucent and radiodense metaphyseal lines
Alternating radiolucent and radiodense metaphyseal lines can be seen with a number of conditions and the differential diagnosis is wide:
growth arrest lines
bisphosphonate therapy
rickets: especially those on prolonged treatment, e.g. vitamin D dependant rickets
osteopetrosis
chemotherapy
...
Article
Amorphous calcifications (breast)
Amorphous calcifications, previously known as indistinct calcifications, are a morphological descriptor for breast calcifications that are small and/or hazy such that no clearly defined shape/form can be ascribed.
Pathology
Many benign and malignant conditions may be seen in association with ...
Article
Anterior knee pain
Anterior knee pain is common with a variety of causes which can be divided anatomically using a layered approach1 from superficial to deep:
Superficial soft tissues
prepatellar bursitis
Morel-Lavallée lesion
infrapatellar bursitis
Extensor mechanism
quadriceps tendinosis / partial tear
q...
Article
Anterior vertebral body beaking
Anterior vertebral body beaking occurs in a number of conditions and may emanate from the central portion or the lower third of the vertebral body.
Middle third
Morquio syndrome 1 (middle for Morquio)
Lower third
Hurler syndrome 2
achondroplasia 3
pseudoachondroplasia 4
cretinism 5
Down ...
Article
Apical pleural cap
Apical pleural cap refers to a curved density at the lung apex seen on chest radiograph.
Epidemiology
The frequency of apical pleural thickening increases with age 3.
Pathology
It arises from a number of causes:
pleural thickening/scarring
idiopathic: chronic ischaemic aetiology is favoure...
Article
Apple core sign (colon)
The apple core sign, also known as the napkin ring sign (bowel), is most frequently associated with constriction of the lumen of the colon by a stenosing annular colorectal carcinoma.
Differential diagnosis
The appearance of the apple-core lesion of the colon also can be caused by other diseas...
Article
Ascending aorta dilatation
Dilatation of the ascending aorta is a common finding in the elderly but unusual in younger patients.
Pathology
In adults, an ascending aortic diameter greater than 4 cm is considered to indicate dilatation 4. Aneurysmal dilatation is considered when the ascending aortic diameter reaches or ex...
Article
Asymmetry in breast size
Asymmetry in breast size can arise from a number of factors.
Pathology
Breasts are rarely absolutely the same size or volume. Normal variation is common. Most females have slight discrepancies in breast size. Asymmetric progressive breast enlargement is unusual but known. The role of the breas...
Article
Asymmetry (mammography)
Asymmetries in mammography represent a spectrum of morphological descriptors for a unilateral fibroglandular-density finding seen on one or more mammographic projections that do not meet criteria for a mass. The term refers to a density finding and should not be confused with asymmetry in breast...
Article
Bands in gestational sacs
Band like structures in the gestational sac is not an uncommon finding in the first trimester or second trimester ultrasound scans and can represent a number of varying conditions
These include
uterine synechiae
amniotic bands
amniotic shelf
circumvallate placenta
chorio-amniotic separatio...
Article
Basal ganglia and thalamus signal abnormalities
Basal ganglia and thalamus signal abnormalities occur in a wide variety of conditions. Ischaemia/hypoxia, metabolic disorders and toxins, particularly those that affect the respiratory chain, have a predilection for affecting the basal ganglia as they are highly metabolically active.
They can ...
Article
Basal ganglia calcification
Basal ganglia calcification is common and is seen in approximately 1% of all CT scans of the brain, depending on the demographics of the scanned population. It is seen more frequently in older patients and is considered a normal incidental and idiopathic finding in an elderly patient but should ...
Article
Basal ganglia T1 hyperintensity
There are many causes of basal ganglia T1 hyperintensity, but the majority relate to deposition of T1-intense elements within the basal ganglia such as:
calcium
idiopathic calcification
calcium and phosphate abnormalities
hepatic failure
acquired non-wilsonian hepatocerebral degeneration
W...
Article
Basal ganglia T2 hyperintensity
The causes of basal ganglia T2 hyperintensity can be remembered using the mnemonic LINT:
lymphoma
ischaemia
hypoxia
venous infarction (internal cerebral vein thrombosis)
neurodegenerative / metabolic
autoimmune encephalitis (e.g. anti-D2 dopamine antibody encephalitis)
Creutzfeldt-Jakob d...
Article
Basal ganglia T2 hypointensity
Basal ganglia T2 hypointensities can be caused by any of the following and is commonly remembered using the mnemonic ChOMP.
childhood hypoxia
old age
multiple sclerosis
Parkinson disease: more in globus pallidus
Parkinson-plus syndrome: more in putamen
deoxyhaemoglobin of haemorrhage
haem...
Article
Basilar invagination
Basilar invagination, also called basilar impression, is a congenital or acquired craniocervical junction abnormality where the tip of the odontoid process projects above the foramen magnum.
Terminology
The terms basilar invagination and basilar impression are often used interchangeably becau...
Article
Bat wing opacities (lungs)
Bat wing or butterfly pulmonary opacities refer to a pattern of bilateral perihilar shadowing. It is classically described on a frontal chest radiograph but can also refer to appearances on chest CT 3,4.
Differential diagnosis
Bat wing pulmonary opacities can be caused by:
pulmonary oedema (e...
Article
Benign lytic bone lesions
Benign lytic bone lesions encompass a wide variety of entities. A useful starting point is the FEGNOMASHIC mnemonic.
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See also
malignant l...
Article
Bilateral adrenal gland enlargement
The differential for bilaterally enlarged adrenal glands is relatively limited:
adrenal hyperplasia
micronodular adrenal hyperplasia
macronodular adrenal hyperplasia
adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)-independent macronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia (AIMAH) 2
adrenal metastases
adrenal haemorrh...
Article
Bilateral axillary lymphadenopathy (differential)
Bilateral axillary lymphadenopathy can result from a number of causes and generally implies a systemic process. They include:
autoimmune diseases, e.g.:
rheumatoid arthritis
scleroderma
dermatomyositis 5
systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
psoriasis
Sjögren syndrome
lymphoma
leukaemia
d...
Article
Bilateral middle cerebellar peduncle lesions
Involvement of both middle cerebellar peduncles is uncommon, but has a relatively long list of differential diagnoses, including 1:
neurodegenerative diseases
multiple systemic atrophy (MSA)
olivopontocerebellar atrophy
Shy-Drager syndrome
spinocerebellar atrophy
metabolic diseases
adre...
Article
Bilateral pleural effusion
Bilateral pleural effusions can be common in general radiology practice. The may be symmetrical or asymmetrical. they can occur from a number of varied aetiologies although congestive heart failure (CHF), renal or liver failure generally considered common 1.
Recognised list of causes are many...
Article
Bilateral renal enlargement
Bilateral renal enlargement can arise from a number of causes which include 1,2:
Smooth enlargement
diabetic nephropathy (common)
renal involvement with lymphoma
acute interstitial nephritis
acute glomerulonephritis
acute urate nephropathy
vasculitis/autoimmune
HIV nephropathy
leukaemia...
Article
Bilateral testicular lesions
Bilateral testicular lesions have a relatively limited differential diagnosis.
Differential diagnosis
Neoplastic
lymphoblastic leukaemia (acute or chronic)
lymphoma (non-Hodgkin's)
primary testicular lymphoma is rare but the testes are often the site of lymphoma/leukaemia recurrence due t...
Article
Bile duct dilatation (differential)
Bile duct dilatation can be due to several aetiologies.
Clinical presentation
Variable, depending on underlying cause, but usually:
right upper quadrant pain
jaundice
Radiographic features
Ultrasound
Harmonic imaging is useful when assessing the biliary system, as it improves the clarity ...
Article
Bile duct wall thickening (differential)
Thickening of the bile duct wall can stem from a variety of aetiologies.
Radiographic features
Ultrasound
bile duct wall thickening
bile duct walls are typically not visible when normal
possible narrowing of the ducts with obstruction
possible secondary signs of cholangitis, including debr...
Article
Bladder wall thickening (differential)
Differential diagnosis for bladder wall thickening depends on whether the bladder is adequately distended. The bladder wall may be thickened if:
>3 mm when distended
>5 mm when nondistended
If the bladder is not distended, then it is difficult to exclude artifactual thickening from a collapse...
Article
Bone deformity from softening
Conditions associated with bone deformity from softening includes:
hourglass thorax
bowing of long bones
acetabular protrusion
buckled/compressed pelvis
biconcave vertebral bodies / codfish vertebra
Article
Bone lesions with sequestrum
There are several bony lesions that can involve or produce a sequestrum.
They include:
Common
Brodie abscess: osteomyelitis
Less common
eosinophilic granuloma
certain soft tissue tumours (with bony extension)
malignant fibrous histiocytoma
lymphoma
metastasis (especially from breast c...
Article
Bone mineral density
Bone mineral density (BMD) is defined as the amount of mineral (calcium hydroxyapatite) per unit of bone and can be used as an indirect indicator of bone strength.
Radiographic features
BMD can be measured by various methods with DEXA the most prevalent:
gamma rays (gamma decay): replaced by...
Article
Bone within a bone appearance
Bone within a bone is a descriptive term applied to bones that appear to have another bone within them. There are numerous causes including:
normal
thoracic and lumbar vertebrae (neonates and infants)
growth recovery lines (after infancy)
cortical splitting and new periostitis
sickle cell d...
Article
Bowel wall thickening
Bowel wall thickening is a useful finding on imaging studies and has a number of different causes.
Pathology
The reason for bowel wall thickening depends on the underlying aetiology but includes submucosal oedema, haemorrhage, and neoplastic infiltration.
Radiographic features
In describing ...
Article
Brain herniation
Brain herniation, also referred to as acquired intracranial herniation, refers to shift of brain tissue from its normal location, into an adjacent space as a result of mass effect. It is a life-threatening condition that requires prompt diagnosis.
Pathology
There are a number of different pat...
Article
Breast calcifications
Breast calcifications are deposits of calcium salts in the breast, which are radio-opaque on mammography. The majority are benign, but they can be associated with cancer. The ability to diagnose and appropriately manage the significant microcalcifications and differentiate them from innocuous fi...
Article
Breast density
Breast density refers to the amount of fibroglandular tissue in a breast relative to fat. It can significantly vary between individuals and within individuals over a lifetime.
Classification
There are four descriptors for breast density on mammography in the 5th edition of BI-RADS 1,2:
a: the...
Article
Breast lumps
Breast lumps have different characteristics that allow simplification of differential diagnosis by breaking down the vast list into sections. Consider whether the lump fits into one of these categories.
Spiculated lesion
Spiculation is a feature of neoplasms and all masses that display spicula...
Article
Bridging of the pubic symphysis (differential)
Bridging (or fusion) of the pubic symphysis can be associated with various systemic and local causes, including 1-3:
ankylosing spondylitis
ochronosis
fluorosis
surgical fusion
post-traumatic
post-infectious
post-radiation therapy
osteoarthritis
rheumatoid arthritis
osteitis pubis
myo...
Article
Bronchial stenosis
Bronchial stenosis, or bronchial strictures, are descriptive terms to denote regions of focal narrowing involving the bronchi. They can arise from a wide variety of aetiologies.
Pathology
Aetiology
It can arise from a large range of aetiological factors, which include:
tracheobronchial malig...
Article
Bronchial wall thickening
Bronchial wall thickening is an imaging descriptor used to describe abnormal thickening of bronchial walls and can arise from a vast number of pathological entities. It is one of the causes of peribronchial cuffing.
The presence of bronchial wall thickening usually (but not always) implies infl...
Article
Bulging duodenal papilla
Bulging duodenal papilla is a conical or cylindrical protuberance at the medial aspect of the descending or horizontal duodenum at the site of the sphincter of Oddi. It is a finding on small bowel follow-though (and endoscopy) and has a relatively long differential. On cross-sectional imaging, ...
Article
Calcification of the external ear (differential)
Calcification of the external ear (auricular cartilage) may arise from a number of causes, including:
hyperparathyroidism
gout and pseudogout
relapsing polychondritis
frostbite
trauma
ochronosis
sarcoidosis
diabetes mellitus
adrenal insufficiency
Article
Calcification of the globe (differential)
Calcification of the globe has many causes, varying from the benign to malignant. When calcification is seen of the posterior half of the globe, it could relate to any of the layers (scleral, choroidal or retinal), as it is not possible to separate them out on CT.
Retinal
drusen: 1% population...
Article
Calcific axillary lymphadenopathy (differential)
Calcific axillary lymphadenopathy is in general, more concerning than axillary lymphadenopathy alone and is particularly so if it contains microcalcifications. While this is concerning for malignancy, it can also occur from occasional nonmalignant causes
Causes include
metastatic axillary lymp...
Article
Calcific cervical lymphadenopathy (differential)
Calcific cervical lymphadenopathy is uncommon and has a limited differential diagnosis, including malignant and benign aetiologies. The most frequent causes include 1:
malignancies (more common)
metastatic thyroid carcinoma (most common; papillary or medullary types) 2,5
metastatic adenocarci...
Article
Calcified mediastinal lymph nodes (differential)
There are numerous causes of calcified mediastinal lymph nodes.
Common causes include:
infectious granulomatous diseases
tuberculosis
histoplasmosis
sarcoidosis
silicosis
treated lymphoma
Uncommon causes include:
Pneumocystis jiroveci (PCP) pneumonia
metastases
thyroid carcinoma: papi...
Article
Calcified pulmonary densities (differential)
Calcified pulmonary (lung parenchymal) densities can occur in a number of conditions.
Micronodules
healed varicella pneumonia 1
pulmonary alveolar microlithiasis
occupational lung diseases
silicosis
coal workers pneumoconiosis
stannosis
baritosis
See the main article on calcified pulmon...
Article
Calcified pulmonary embolus
Calcification associated with pulmonary emboli is usually associated with chronic pulmonary embolism. Calcification is occasionally related to prior congenital cardiac repairs 1.
Differential diagnosis
If it is purely high attenuating, consider
polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) embolism into the ...
Article
Calcified pulmonary nodules
Calcified pulmonary nodules are a subset of hyperdense pulmonary nodules and a group of nodules with a relatively narrow differential.
Pathology
Aetiology
The most common cause of nodule calcification is granuloma formation, usually in the response to healed infection.
healed infection
ca...
Article
Calcifying pulmonary metastases
Calcifying pulmonary metastases are rare. These should not be confused with metastatic pulmonary calcification.
Pathology
Calcification in metastases can arise through a variety of mechanisms: bone formation in tumours osteoid origin, calcification and ossification of tumour cartilage, dystrop...
Article
Calvarial thickening
Calvarial thickening can occur from a number of causes. These include:
idiopathic
chronic ventricular shunting 1
antiepileptics
phenytoin 3
osteopetrosis 2
fibrous dysplasia
acromegaly
anaemias (largely associated with massive haematopoiesis)
Paget disease
hyperparathyroidism
certain ...
Article
Cardiac calcification
Cardiac calcification is a broad term for any calcification affecting the valves, coronary arteries, aortic root, endocardium, myocardium, and/or pericardium.
Pathology
Causes of cardiac calcification are:
coronary artery disease (most common)
coronary artery aneurysms, e.g. in Kawasaki dise...
Article
Cardiomegaly
Cardiomegaly is a catch-all term to refer to enlargement of the heart, and should not be confused with causes of enlargement of the cardiomediastinal outline, or enlargement of the cardiac silhouette.
Pathology
Aetiology
There are many aetiologies for cardiomegaly:
congestive heart failure
...
Article
Cardiophrenic angle lesions
The cardiophrenic space is usually filled with fat. However, lesions originating above or lower to the diaphragm can present as cardiophrenic angle lesions.
The more common lesions encountered include:
pericardial fat pad
pericardial cyst
pericardial fat necrosis
Morgagni's hernia
lymphade...
Article
Cardiovascular shunts
Cardiovascular (cardiac) shunts are abnormal connections between the pulmonary and systemic circulations. Most commonly they are the result of congenital heart disease.
Pathology
Blood can either be shunted from the systemic circulation to pulmonary circulation (i.e. 'left-to-right shunt') or ...
Article
Carotid pacemaker
Carotid pacemakers, also known as implantable carotid sinus stimulators, are devices that deliver activation energy, via carotid leads, to the carotid baroreceptors. This is sometimes offered for drug-resistant hypertension. The baroreceptors send signals to the brain and the signals are interpr...
Article
Carpal angle
Carpal angle is defined by two intersecting lines, one in contact with the proximal surface of the scaphoid and the lunate and the other line through the proximal margins of the triquetrum and the lunate. Its normal value is between 130° and 137°.
It is increased (>139°) in:
bone dysplasia
D...
Article
Cartilaginous lesions
The differential for cartilaginous lesions includes:
osteochondroma
enchondroma
juxtacortical chondroma
chondromyxoid fibroma
chondroblastoma
chondrosarcoma
See also
fibrous lesions
osteoid lesions
Article
Causes of abnormal lunate signal on MRI
There are several important causes of an abnormal lunate signal on MRI, the most frequent causes being Kienbock disease (25%), ulnar impaction syndrome (25%) and intraosseous ganglia (20%).1 Appreciation of the pattern of bone signal change can often allow the correct diagnosis to be made.
Kien...
Article
Causes of ascending aorta calcification
There are relatively few causes of calcification of the ascending aorta 1-3:
atherosclerosis (this usually spares the ascending aorta)
aortitis
syphilis
Takayasu arteritis
idiopathic
See also
porcelain aorta
Article
Causes of a small aorta
Causes of a small aorta include:
Williams syndrome
Takayasu arteritis
giant cell arteritis
neurofibromatosis
midaortic syndrome
small aorta syndrome
idiopathic
Article
Cavernous sinus gas
Cavernous sinus gas locules can be seen in several settings.
iatrogenic pneumocephalus secondary to gas embolism (especially venous gas embolism) from IV access (can be a relatively common finding in the absence of direct trauma and does not require treatment)
traumatic pneumocephalus: in the ...
Article
Cavernous sinus mass
A cavernous sinus mass has a wide differential including:
meningioma
orbital apical inflammation with cavernous sinus involvement (Tolosa-Hunt syndrome)
infection
schwannoma
any of the cranial nerves traversing the cavernous sinus: III, IV, V (V1 and V2) and VI
trigeminal schwannoma is ...
Article
Cavitating pneumonia
Cavitating pneumonia is a complication that can occur with severe necrotising pneumonia and in some publications, it is used synonymously with the latter term 2. It is a rare complication in both children and adults.
Cavitation associated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis is separately discussed...
Article
Cavitating pulmonary metastases
Cavitating pulmonary metastases refer to pulmonary metastases which then tend to cavitate. The term is similar but may not be identical to cystic pulmonary metastases in which the wall of the former may be thicker.
Epidemiology
Cavitation is thought to occur in around 4% of lung metastases 2.
...
Article
Central bronchiectasis
Distribution of bronchiectasis can help in narrowing the differential diagnosis. Central bronchiectasis is typically seen in:
allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA)
congenital tracheobronchomegaly (a.k.a. Mounier Kuhn syndrome)
cystic fibrosis
Williams Campbell syndrome (rare)
See a...
Article
Centrilobular lung nodules
Centrilobular lung nodules refer to an HRCT chest imaging descriptor for small 5-10 mm lung nodules which are anatomically located centrally within secondary pulmonary lobules. The term is applied on the basis of location of the nodule and not its morphology that is they may be well defined or p...
Article
Cerebellopontine angle mass
Cerebellopontine angle (CPA) masses are relatively common. Although a diverse range of pathologies may be seen in this region, the most common by far is a vestibular schwannoma.
Pathology
Cerebellopontine angle masses can be divided into four groups, based on imaging characteristics:
enhanci...
Article
Cerebral atrophy
Cerebral atrophy is the morphological presentation of brain parenchymal volume loss that is frequently seen on cross-sectional imaging. Rather than being a primary diagnosis, it is the common endpoint for range disease processes that affect the central nervous system. Though often no identifiabl...
Article
Cerebral ring enhancing lesions
The differential for peripheral or ring enhancing cerebral lesions includes:
cerebral abscess
tuberculoma
neurocysticercosis
metastasis
glioblastoma
subacute infarct/haemorrhage/contusion
demyelination (incomplete ring)
tumefactive demyelinating lesion (incomplete ring)
radiation necros...
Article
Cerebral vascular malformations
Vascular malformations of the central nervous system can be divided, as they can elsewhere, into high and low flow malformations.
High flow
arteriovenous malformation (AVM)
cerebral AVM (pial/parenchymal AVM)
cerebral proliferative angiopathy
dural arteriovenous fistula (DAVF)
pial arteri...
Article
Cervical spine injury
Cervical spine injuries can involve the cervical vertebral column, intervertebral discs and cervical spine ligaments, and/or cervical spinal cord. The cervical spine accounts for ~50% of all spinal injuries.
Epidemiology
5-10% of patients with blunt trauma have a cervical spine injury 1.
Pa...
Article
Chondrocalcinosis
Chondrocalcinosis (plural: chondrocalcinoses) is a descriptive term indicating the presence of gross calcium deposition within articular cartilage, i.e. both hyaline and fibrocartilage.
Terminology
Chondrocalcinosis articularis was an early term for calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate deposition d...
Article
Chorioretinitis
Chorioretinitis refers to inflammation of the retina and choroid. As a delayed sequelae, it is one of the causes of calcification of the globe. It is often considered a form of posterior uveitis.
Pathology
Aetiology
various congenital infections such as 2,3
rubella: ocular rubella
cytomega...
Article
Chronic bilateral airspace opacification (differential)
Chronic bilateral airspace opacification is a subset of the differential diagnosis for airspace opacification. An exhaustive list of all possible causes of chronic bilateral airspace opacities is long, but a useful framework is as follows:
inflammatory
sarcoidosis
granulomatosis with polyangi...
Article
Chronic encephalitides
There are several viral and prion infections which can result in a chronic encephalitis with slow progression into brain atrophy. These have a very poor prognosis with no effective treatment.
Some of these include:
progressive multifocal leukoencephalitis
subacute sclerosing panencephalitis
...
Article
Chronic interstitial pneumonitis
Chronic interstitial pneumonitis is a broad descriptive term where an interstitial pneumonia has a prolonged course. It can arise of a range of aetiologies. The term does not usually imply a specific radiographic pattern and includes UIP, NSIP or other pattern. As a general rule there is little ...
Article
Chronic primary adrenal insufficiency
Chronic primary adrenal insufficiency has a number of causes. Primary adrenal insufficiency is termed Addison disease.
Pathology
Causes
idiopathic atrophy: autoimmune adrenalitis 1
tuberculosis 1: 25% calcify
fungal disease 1
histioplasmosis
blastomycosis
coccidioidomycosis
AIDS 1
sarc...