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Skin thickening on mammography (differential)

The presence of skin thickening on mammography is variably defined, usually being more than 2 mm in thickness. It can result from a number of both benign and malignant causes. They include: Malignant inflammatory breast cancer: one of the most concerning causes of skin thickening: this usually...

Skull base angle

The skull base angle allows the diagnosis of platybasia and basilar kyphosis. There are several different techniques that may be used on sagittal images from MRI or CT. Traditionally, basal angle measurements were based on plain skull images. With the advent and generalization of MR imaging it ...

Skull tumors

Skull tumors can be (as with tumors anywhere else) both primary and secondary, and benign or malignant. Primary Benign osteoma ossifying fibroma osteoblastoma hemangioma giant cell tumor (GCT) aneurysmal bone cyst (ABC) epidermoid and dermoid cysts chondroma Malignant osteosarcoma c...

Small bowel folds (differential)

Regular, smooth generalized thickening edema congestive cardiac failure (CCF) hypoalbuminemia lymphatic obstruction angioneurotic edema infection radiation ischemia hemorrhage anticoagulation or bleeding diathesis vasculitides IgA vasculitis (Henoch-Schonlein purpura) Buerger diseas...

Small bowel imaging

Small bowel imaging aims at assessment of the disorders of small intestine. Imaging techniques barium follow through fluoroscopic enteroclysis conventional CT CT enteroclysis MR enteroclysis CT enterography MR enterography capsule endoscopy

Small bowel ischemia

Small bowel or mesenteric ischemia may be a life-threatening condition, arising from any one of numerous causes of disturbance of the normal blood flow through the small bowel wall. Pathology It can be divided into acute and chronic forms, with the main underlying etiologies (each discussed s...

Small for date fetus

A small for dates fetus can result from a number of factors Fetal factors aneuploidy trisomy triploidy skeletal dysplasia(s) structural anomalies (syndromes) Maternal factors Common hypertension medication(s): fetal Warfarin syndrome hydantoin embryopathy (Dilantin TM) cytotoxic dru...

Small lung volume (differential diagnosis)

The following differential diagnoses can be considered when small lung volumes are seen: pulmonary fibrosis prior surgery, e.g. lobectomy, lung volume reduction surgery pleural disease, e.g. pleural thickening skeletal deformities, e.g. kyphosis, scoliosis systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)...

Small placenta

A small placenta if observed on antenatal ultrasound can arise from a number of situations. They include: variation in placental morphology: where only part of the placenta is seen bilobed placenta: with only one lobe seen succenturiate lobe: with either main lobe or succenturiate lobe not se...

Smoking related lung disease

Smoking related lung diseases are the respiratory manifestations of disease that are related to the smoking of tobacco. Smoking affects the lungs in numerous ways, and can be classified under the following headings: smoking related-interstitial lung diseases (SR-ILD) respiratory bronchiolitis ...

Snake eyes (facial nerve)

Snake eyes, also known as snail eyes, is a term used to refer to the appearance of the facial nerve on coronal CT within its canal in the petrous temporal bone as the tympanic segment doubles back next to the labyrinthine segment. Anteriorly, these two segments converge at the geniculate ganglio...

Soft tissue calcification

Soft tissue calcification is commonly seen and caused by a wide range of pathology. Differential diagnosis There is a wide range of causes of soft tissue calcification 1: dystrophic soft tissue calcification (most common), e.g. chronic venous insufficiency 2 vascular, e.g. arterial calcifica...

Soft tissue lesions with predominately low T1 and T2 signal (differential)

Soft tissue lesions with predominately low T1 and T2 signal have a reasonably long differential, including: Common air densely calcified/ossified lesions foreign body gout flow voids arteriovenous fistula aneurysm post-operative changes hematoma, chronic plantar fibromatosis pigmen...

Soft-tissue sarcoma

Soft-tissue sarcomas are a heterogeneous group of malignant tumors of mesenchymal origin (sarcoma) that originate from the soft tissues rather than bone. They are classified on the basis of tissue seen on histology. The commoner sarcomas in the adult and pediatric population are listed below. A...

Solid and enhancing pituitary region mass

Solid lesions with enhancement are by far the most commonly encountered appearance of pituitary region masses. Differential diagnosis macroadenoma by far the most common entity typically enhances less vividly than other entities elevates the dura of the diaphragma sella (as the origin is wi...

Solid periosteal reaction

Solid periosteal pattern is thought to evolve from single layer and multilayered periosteal reactions, forming a solid layer of new bone adjacent to the cortex. It can be seen in: osteoid osteoma osteomyelitis osteosarcoma chondrosarcoma fibrous dysplasia non-ossifying fibroma osteoblast...

Solitary filling defect of the ureter (differential)

Solitary filling defect with a ureter, as seen on conventional IVU or CT IVU has some differentials, including: within the lumen calculus sloughed papilla blood clot benign polyp within the wall transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) tuberculosis metastasis endometriosis When multiple fi...

Solitary ill-defined osteolytic lesion (differential)

Ill-defined solitary osteolytic lesions can be caused by following entities 1: intraosseous hemangioma chondroblastoma osteoblastoma giant cell tumor fibrosarcoma of bone malignant fibrous histiocytoma chondrosarcoma osteosarcoma Ewing's sarcoma angiosarcoma multiple myeloma intraoss...

Solitary lucent skull lesion

Solitary lucent lesion of the skull is a relatively frequent finding. The differential is heavily influenced by the patient's age. Older adult/elderly metastasis/malignancy breast cancer lung cancer melanoma thyroid cancer renal cell cancer multiple myeloma epidermoid and dermoid hema...

Solitary pulmonary nodules

Solitary pulmonary nodule (SPN) is defined as a relatively well defined round or oval pulmonary parenchymal lesion equal to or smaller than 30 mm in diameter. It is surrounded by pulmonary parenchyma and/or visceral pleura and is not associated with lymphadenopathy, atelectasis, or pneumonia 9. ...

Solitary sclerotic bone lesion

The differential diagnosis of a solitary sclerotic bone lesion is heavily influenced by the age of the patient, and includes: sclerotic metastasis solitary either because no others are present or no others have been imaged enostosis (bone island) osteosarcoma calcifying enchondroma osteobl...

Solitary sclerotic bone lesion with a lucent center

Solitary sclerotic bone lesion with a lucent center have a number of differentials: neoplastic osteoid osteoma osteoblastoma infective Brodie abscess tuberculosis syphilis yaws

Solitary well defined osteolytic lesion (differential)

Well defined solitary osteolytic lesions can be seen with following conditions 1-2: subchondral geodes or cysts intraosseous ganglion intraosseous tophus(gout) unicameral bone cyst aneurysmal bone cyst glomus tumor enchondroma epidermoid inclusion cyst chondroblastoma non-ossifying fi...

Sonographic values in obstetrics and gynecology

Obstetric and gynecological ultrasound is rampant with numerous cut off values. Some of these get revised over the years. The following list is a useful aid to refer to and revise. 1 mm rate of increase of a mean sac diameter per day in early pregnancy 2 mm generally accepted value for a thi...

Speckled anterior horn of lateral meniscus

The speckled appearance of the anterior horn of lateral meniscus is a feature that can be seen as a normal variant on MRI scans. It is usually seen near its central attachment site. It is often explained by fibers of the anterior cruciate ligament and the covering synovium inserting into the men...

Spiculated periosteal reaction

Spiculated periosteal reaction represents spicules of new bone forming along vascular channels and the fibrous bands that anchor tendons to bone (Sharpey fibers). A spiculated periosteal reaction signifies a rapid underlying process that prevents formation of new bone under the raised periosteum...

Spinal cord compression

Spinal cord compression is a surgical emergency, usually requiring prompt surgical decompression to prevent permanent neurological impairment. Pathology Etiology There are numerous causes of cord compression. These can be divided according to the location of the compressing mass: interverteb...

Spinal dysraphism

Spinal dysraphisms refer to a broad group of malformations affecting the spine and/or surrounding structures in the dorsum of the embryo. They are a form of neural tube defect. Pathology The neural tube is formed by the lengthwise closure of the neural plate, in the dorsum of the embryo. The ...

Spinal epidural mass

The differential diagnosis for a spinal epidural mass includes: epidural metastasis epidural abscess herniated nucleus pulposus epidural hematoma epidural arteriovenous malformation epidural angiolipoma epidural lipomatosis

Spinal fractures

Spinal fractures are usually the result of significant trauma to a normally formed skeleton, or the result of trauma to a weakened spinal column. Examples include: Jefferson fracture: ring fracture of C1 hangman fracture: bilateral pedicle or pars fracture of C2 dens fracture flexion teardro...

Spinal hematoma

Spinal hematomas are a rare clinical entity and are often idiopathic. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are crucial, lest they cause permanent neurological damage. Identifying the location of the hematoma is important for treatment, as is distinguishing it, to the extent possible, from other entit...

Spinal metastases

Spinal metastases is a vague term which can be variably taken to refer to metastatic disease to any of the following: vertebral metastases (94%) may have epidural extension intradural extramedullary metastases (5%) intramedullary metastases (1%) Each of these are discussed separately. Below...

Spinal vascular malformations

Spinal vascular malformations (SVM) are rare but knowledge of them is important as if undiagnosed and untreated they can lead to serious complications. Pathology There are two main types of SVMs 1,2: spinal arteriovenous fistula (AVF): 70% of SVMs pial: small, large, or giant dural AVF (DA...

Splenic abscess

Splenic abscesses, like abscesses elsewhere, are localized collections of necrotic inflammatory tissue caused by bacterial, parasitic or fungal agents. They uncommonly affect the spleen due to its efficient reticuloendothelial system phagocytic activity and, consequently, are more likely seen in...

Splenic amyloidosis

Splenic amyloidosis is rare as an isolated entity. Most often it is associated with either systemic amyloidosis or hepatic amyloidosis. Epidemiology In general, splenic involvement in amyloidosis is rather frequent (5-10% of cases 6,7). Clinical presentation Symptoms include abdominal mass a...

Splenic calcification

Splenic calcifications can occur is various shapes and forms and can occur from a myriad of etiological factors. The usual calcification observed in radiographs are the multiple, miliary form presenting numerous small rounded densities averaging from three to five millimeters in diameter where ...

Splenic cyst

Splenic epithelial cysts, also referred as splenic epidermoid cysts or primary splenic cysts, are unilocular fluid lesions with thin and smooth walls and no enhancement. They represent ~20% of cysts found in the spleen, and are usually an innocuous incidental imaging finding. Note that most (~8...

Splenic haemangiomatosis

Splenic haemangiomatosis involves multiple, diffuse splenic hemangiomas replacing its entire parenchyma. It is a very rare entity. Pathology It can occur as a manifestation of systemic angiomatosis or, less commonly, confined to the spleen (diffuse isolated splenic haemangiomatosis). There is ...

Splenic lesions and anomalies

There are a number of splenic lesions and anomalies: Congenital anomalies accessory spleen wandering spleen asplenia polysplenia splenogonadal fusion retrorenal spleen Mass lesions Benign mass lesions splenic cyst (mnemonic) splenic pseudocyst splenic hemangioma: commonest benign spl...

Splenic pseudocyst

Splenic pseudocysts, also referred as secondary splenic cysts, are acquired cystic lesions not delineated by a true epithelial wall. They represent the majority of the splenic cystic lesions, corresponding to approximately 80% of them (c.f. splenic epithelial cysts). The main causes are: splen...

Splenomegaly

Splenomegaly refers to enlargement of the spleen. The upper limit of normal adult splenic length is traditionally cited at 12 cm, but lengths upwards of 14 cm can be seen in normal, taller males 7. Massive splenomegaly is variably defined, including when the spleen is 5 standard deviations abov...

Spontaneous nipple discharge

Spontaneous nipple discharge in a non lactating breast can result from many causes which include: papillary lesions of breast: present in ~35-50% of cases with spontaneous nipple discharge intraductal papilloma fibrocystic change ductal carcinoma in situ: 5-21%

Spontaneous splenic rupture

Spontaneous splenic rupture (SSR) (or atraumatic splenic rupture) is rare, especially when compared to traumatic splenic rupture. Pathology The pathogenesis of atraumatic splenic rupture is not well understood. Splenomegaly is present in almost all patients (~95%), although rupture of normal ...

Sports injuries - cricket

Cricket is a popular game in Commonwealth countries. Sports injuries in this game can be associated with three positional aspects of the game: bowling, batting or fielding. Radiologists should know the different kind of injuries related to this game for a better clinical association. Injuries ca...

Sports injuries: overhead elbow

Overhead elbow sports injuries are a group of pathologies seen in sports activities with overhead throwing or strokes, e.g. tennis, volleyball, baseball, javelin throwing. There has been a tremendous increase in the number of participants in these sports activities worldwide. Pathology During ...

Sports injuries: snowsports

Snowsport injuries cover a broad range of activities from alpine or Nordic skiing, snowboarding, and recreational play (e.g. tobogganing, tubing). Epidemiology Snowsports are popular with over 70 million people globally participating each year 1. While the injury rate varies depending on loca...

Sprue

Sprue is the collective term for the malabsorptive gastrointestinal enteropathies although it may be used to refer directly to tropical sprue. It is composed of two entities: tropical sprue non-tropical sprue / celiac disease In each, the radiologic features are not sensitive enough to confir...

Storage disorders

Storage disorders comprise a bewildering collection of inherited metabolic conditions which share the accumulation of a metabolite within various cells in the body due to dysfunction of specific enzymes or transport proteins. Accumulation of metabolites eventually results in cellular and/or orga...

Stroke in children and young adults

Brain ischemia/infarction in children and young adults can result from several causes. embolic phenomena cyanotic heart disease cardiomyopathies mitral valve prolapse Osler-Weber-Rendu syndrome arterial dissection trauma spontaneous fibromuscular dysplasia Marfan syndrome Ehlers Danlo...

Subacromial impingement

Subacromial impingement is by far the most common form of shoulder impingement and occurs secondary to attrition between the coracoacromial arch and the supraspinatus tendon or subacromial bursa. Pathology Etiology acromial shape os acromiale type III acromion low lying acromion downslopi...

Subarachnoid FLAIR hyperintensity

There are a wide range of causes for subarachnoid FLAIR hyperintensity, both pathological and artifactual. Differential diagnosis Pathological causes subarachnoid hemorrhage meningitis leptomeningeal carcinomatosis FLAIR vascular hyperintensities in acute stroke 1,4,8 moyamoya disease m...

Subcutaneous abscess

A subcutaneous abscess is a manifestation of a spectrum of soft tissue skin infection which includes cellulitis and necrotizing fasciitis. It is a form of abscess which lies within the dermis and subdermal cutaneous layers. Along with dental abscesses, subcutaneous abscesses are the most common ...

Subcutaneous calcification (differential)

Subcutaneous calcification can be associated with a number of disorders. The list includes: dermatomyositis Ehlers-Danlos syndrome pseudoxanthoma elasticum basal cell nevus syndrome subcutaneous lipodystrophy venous thrombosis as a manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus varicose v...

Subdiaphragmatic free gas

Subdiaphragmatic free gas is one of the ways of detecting presence of free intraperitoneal gas (i.e. pneumoperitoneum). It is the presence of free, extraluminal gas in the anterior subhepatic space. Radiographic features Plain radiograph Subdiaphragmatic free gas is well appreciated as the g...

Subluxed facet joint

Subluxed facet joint is the mildest form of facet dislocation in which the ligamentous injury leads to partial uncovering of facet joint (c.f. complete uncovering in perched facet). This results in mild anterior displacement of one vertebral body on another (anterolisthesis).

Subperiosteal bone resorption

Subperiosteal bone resorption is the most consistent and specific finding of hyperparathyroidism and is virtually pathognomonic of the condition. Radiographic features While the terminal tufts of the phalanges are the most commonly involved bones, many others are involved: tufts of the distal...

Subpulmonic effusion

Subpulmonic effusions are a pleural effusion that can be seen only on an erect projection. Rather than layering laterally and blunting the costophrenic angle, the pleural fluid lies almost exclusively between the lung base and the diaphragm. Radiographic features Plain radiograph The fluid ca...

Subsegmental atelectasis

Subsegmental atelectasis is a descriptive term for a minor peripheral form of lung atelectasis. Terminology Some authors also term it discoid atelectasis or plate-like atelectasis due to its appearance. Pathology It is usually due to a lack of adequate inspiration, and not due to any underly...

Sunburst appearance (bone)

Sunburst appearance is a type of periosteal reaction giving the appearance of a sunburst secondary to an aggressive periostitis. It should not be confused with the sunburst sign of meningioma vascularity. The sunburst appearance occurs when the lesion grows too fast and the periosteum does not...

Superficial siderosis

Superficial siderosis is a rare condition which results from the deposition of hemosiderin along the leptomeninges, with eventual neurological dysfunction. On imaging, it is classically characterized on MRI as a rim of low signal coating the surface of the brain or spinal cord, particularly not...

Superficial thrombophlebitis

Superficial thrombophlebitis, also called superficial venous thrombosis (SVT), is a pathological condition characterized by the presence of a thrombus in the lumen of a superficial vein, accompanied by inflammatory reaction of adjacent tissues. Terminology Some authors, however, reserve the te...

Supernumerary ribs

Supernumerary ribs occur most commonly as a cervical rib arising from C7 or a lumbar rib arising from L1. In extremely rare situations, there can be sacral, coccygeal, intrathoracic, or aberrant lumbar ribs 3. Rarely supernumerary ribs (cervical and lumbar ribs aside) have been found as 'normal'...

Superscan

Superscan is intense symmetric activity in the bones with diminished renal and soft tissue activity on a Tc99m diphosphonate bone scan. Pathology This appearance can result from a range of etiological factors: diffuse metastatic disease prostatic carcinoma breast cancer transitional cell c...

Suprasellar cystic lesions

The differential for suprasellar cystic lesions is large and predominantly includes developmental and neoplastic conditions. Differential diagnosis Developmental arachnoid cyst craniopharyngioma Rathke's cleft cyst dermoid cyst epidermoid cyst ependymal cyst enlarged perivascular spaces...

Surgical sieve (mnemonic)

A surgical sieve is an approach to differential diagnosis that prompts the user to consider various types of pathologies systematically. Various versions of this mnemonic exist: 5I 3-Scotland MIDNIT VINDICATE VITAMIN CDEF NAIVE MD DICTionary Mnemonics 5I 3-Scotland Where "3-Scotland" rel...

Suspected physical abuse

Suspected physical abuse (previously termed non-accidental injury, NAI) in infants and young children represent both ethical and legal challenges to treating physicians. Radiologists may be the first clinical staff to suspect non-accidental injuries when confronted with a particular injury patt...

Suspicious breast calcifications

Suspicious breast calcifications are calcifications within the breast that have a morphology and/or distribution on mammography indicating a significant probability of malignancy. These merit further workup and biopsy 1. Radiographic features Technique Some calcifications may be more conspicu...

Swan neck deformity (fingers)

Swan neck deformity is a deformity of the digits that consists of: hyperextension of the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joints compensatory flexion of the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joints Pathology Swan neck deformity is seen in 3,4: rheumatoid arthritis (classical association) post-tr...

Symmetrical periosteal reaction

There are a large number of causes for a symmetrical periosteal reaction 1,2: chronic venous insufficiency hypertrophic osteoarthropathy physiologic periostitis, most common cause before 6 months old Caffey disease juvenile idiopathic arthritis pachydermoperiostosis congenital syphilis ...

Syndactyly

Syndactyly (plural: syndactylies) refers to a congenital fusion of two or more digits. It may be confined to soft tissue (soft tissue syndactyly/simple syndactyly) or may involve bone (bony syndactyly/complex syndactyly). Epidemiology The overall estimated incidence is at ~1 per 2,500 to 5,000...

Syndesmophyte

Syndesmophytes are calcifications or heterotopic ossifications inside a spinal ligament or of the annulus fibrosus. They are seen in only a limited number of conditions including: ankylosing spondylitis ochronosis fluorosis reactive arthritis psoriatic arthritis They can be classified as...

Syringobulbia

Syringobulbia is a rare entity and refers to a syrinx that extends into the medulla oblongata 1. Terminology Some authors use syringobulbia to refer to a syrinx present in any portion of the brainstem rather than specifically involving the medulla oblongata, and therefore encompassing syringop...

Syrinx

Syrinx is the collective name given to hydromyelia, syringomyelia, syringobulbia, syringopontia, syringomesencephaly, and syringocephalus. Terminology The use of the general term 'syrinx' has grown out of the difficulty in distinguishing between hydromyelia and syringomyelia using current imag...

Systemic lupus erythematosus (thoracic manifestations)

Thoracic manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus can be variable. For a general discussion, and for links to other system specific manifestations, please refer to the article on systemic lupus erythematosus. Pathology Pleuropulmonary manifestations pleuritis: considered one of the c...

Talar dislocation

There are many types of talar dislocation given its multiple articulations: tibiotalar dislocation subtalar dislocation total talar dislocation talonavicular dislocation Chopart fracture-dislocation

Talar fractures

Talar fractures are an uncommon injury, accounting for <5% of all foot fractures. Recognition of the unique talar anatomy is important for correct diagnosis. Pathology Location talar head fractures talar neck fractures talar body fractures talar dome osteochondral fracture posterior talar...

Tauopathy

Tauopathies are a heterogeneous group of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by abnormal metabolism of misfolded τ (tau) proteins leading to intracellular accumulation and formation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFT). These neurofibrillary tangles are deposited in the cytosol of neurons and g...

Telecanthus

Telecanthus (rare plural: telecanthi) represents an increased intercanthal distance. It is often used interchangeably with hypertelorism, referring to increased distance between the eyes. Causes and associations trauma: naso-orbito-ethmoidal (NOE) fractures ethnic variation acquired sinus a...

Temporal bone destructive lesions (differential)

Destructive lesions of the temporal bone (petrous pyramid, middle ear and antrum) have a relatively broad differential including 1: lesions affecting petrous pyramid vestibular schwannoma (acoustic neuroma) meningioma glioma neuroma of trigeminal and facial nerve chordoma glomus jugulare ...

Temporomandibular joint effusion

Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) effusions are unusual in asymptomatic patients, and thus should trigger a careful search for underlying pathology. It usually precedes osteoarthritis of the TMJ. Effusions are seen in: TMJ dysfunction septic arthritis rheumatoid arthritis (RA) Radiographic featu...

Tension pneumothorax

Tension pneumothoraces occur when intrapleural air accumulates progressively in such a way as to exert positive pressure on mediastinal and intrathoracic structures. It is a life-threatening occurrence requiring both rapid recognition and prompt treatment to avoid a cardiorespiratory arrest. A ...

Terminal ileitis (differential)

The differential diagnosis for a terminal ileitis is quite extensive, and includes: inflammatory bowel disease Crohn disease (most common) backwash ileitis due to ulcerative colitis infectious colitis Yersinia spp. Yersinia enterocolitica Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Salmonella spp. Sa...

Terminal tuft mass

There is only a short list of terminal tuft masses, which can arise from the adjacent soft tissues and erode the terminal tuft as well as arising from the terminal tuft itself: epidermal inclusion cyst: history of penetrating trauma tenosynovial giant cell tumor: occur laterally subungual glo...

Terminal zones of myelination

The terminal zones of myelination are located at the posterior aspect of the lateral ventricles (the peritrigonal regions) and are the only part of the cerebral white matter that may exhibit high T2 signal in a normal brain at 2 years of age, when myelination of cerebral white matter normally be...

Testicular cancer

Testicular cancers are the most common neoplasm in men between the ages of 20 and 34 years. Epidemiology Testicular cancer is uncommon, accounting for less than 1% of all internal organ malignancies 2. The demographics of affected individuals depends on the age of the histology of the tumor. ...

Testicular microlithiasis

Testicular microlithiasis is a relatively common condition that represents the deposition of multiple tiny calcifications throughout both testes. The most common criterion for diagnosis is that of five microcalcifications in one testicle, although definitions have varied in the past. In the ma...

Testicular trauma

Testicular trauma is the third most-common cause of acute scrotal pain and may result in various degree of damage to the testes. Pathology Testicular rupture and testicular ischemia/infarct are two severe complications which need to be ruled out. Other injuries that can occur include 1: testi...

The four "Ds" of radiology reporting

The four "Ds" of radiology reporting are the basic sequential tasks that a radiologist performs when reporting/reading a case, whether it be in training, the exam environment or in day-to-day clinical practice. The 4 "Ds" Detect Describe Diagnosis or differential diagnoses Decision By sti...

Third inflow

Third inflow refers to anatomical variants leading to an additional venous inflow to the liver apart from the usual dual blood supply (portal vein and hepatic artery). They tend to be associated with parenchymal pseudolesions (focal hyperenhancement on post-contrast imaging, focal fat infiltrati...

Thoracic aortic dilatation (differential)

There are a number of causes and mimics of thoracic aortic dilatation. Differential diagnosis senile ectasia hypertension post-stenotic dilatation, e.g. bicuspid aortic valve thoracic aortic aneurysm atherosclerosis (usually descending thoracic aorta) collagen disorders Marfan syndrome ...

Thoracic aortic stenosis (differential)

The differential for thoracic aortic stenosis includes: atherosclerosis aortitis (especially Takayasu arteritis) radiation coarctation pseudocoarctation Williams syndrome: supravalvular aortic stenosis congenital rubella syndrome: supravalvular aortic stenosis

Thoracolith

Thoracoliths are rare, calcified pleural-based nodules that are almost always incidental findings. They are usually considered mobile, and more common on the left. Pathology The exact etiology is unknown and theories include 1,2: calcified fibrin body degenerated pleural lipoma old tubercul...

Threatened miscarriage

Threatened miscarriage (or threatened abortion) is mainly a clinical term, used when a pregnant woman in first 20 weeks of gestation presents with spotting, mild abdominal pain and contractions, with a closed cervical os. Epidemiology It occurs in 20-25% of pregnancies and is associated with ...

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