Articles

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More than 200 results
Article

Benign and malignant characteristics of breast lesions at ultrasound

Benign and malignant characteristics of breast lesions at ultrasound allow the classification as either malignant, intermediate or benign based on work published by Stavros et al. in 1995. Radiographic features Ultrasound Malignant characteristics (with positive predictive values) sonographi...
Article

Breast ultrasound

Breast ultrasound is an important modality in breast imaging. It is the usual initial breast imaging modality in those under 30 years of age in many countries ref. In assessing for malignancy, it is important to remember that one must use the most suspicious feature of three modalities (patholo...
Article

Puerperal mastitis

Puerperal mastitis refers to mastitis occurring during pregnancy and lactation. Epidemiology It occurs most often during breast feeding and is rarely encountered during pregnancy. Pathology The source of infection is the nursing infant's nose and throat; the organisms being Staphylococcus au...
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Calcific axillary lymphadenopathy (differential)

Calcific axillary lymphadenopathy is in general, more concerning than axillary lymphadenopathy alone and is particularly so if it contains microcalcifications. While this is concerning for malignancy, it can also occur from occasional nonmalignant causes. Pathology Etiology metastatic axillar...
Article

Classification of ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS)

The new pathological classification of DCIS (ductal carcinoma in situ) is based on cytonuclear atypia, degree of necrosis, size, and distance from margin/architecture. Low and intermediate grades DCIS require cytologic, architectural and size criteria to be met but high-grade DCIS requires only ...
Article

Medical devices in the thorax

Medical devices in the thorax are regularly observed by radiologists when reviewing radiographs and CT scans. Extrathoracic devices tubing, clamps, syringes, scissors, lying on or under the patient rubber sheets, foam mattresses, clothing, hair braids, nipple piercings, etc., may also be visi...
Article

Breast sebaceous cyst

Breast sebaceous cyst, also known as, more correctly, an epidermal inclusion cyst or simply epidermoid cyst, is a benign breast lesion (BIRADS II).  For a general discussion of this entity outside the breast, please refer to epidermal inclusion cysts.  Terminology The two terms, breast sebace...
Article

Clustered microcysts

Clustered microcysts, or a microcystic cluster, refer to part of the spectrum of cystic change in the breast on ultrasound. They are part of aberrations in development and involution of the breast. Pathology These lesions have no malignant potential 1,2. Clinical presentation These lesions a...
Article

Stellate breast lesions: causes (mnemonic)

A handy mnemonic to recall the causes of a stellate breast lesion is: STARFACE Mnemonic S: summation shadow T: tumor (i.e. invasive breast cancer) A: abscess R: radial scar F: fibroadenoma / fat necrosis A: adenosis (sclerosing) CE: other causes, hematoma (e.g. postoperative, post biops...
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Lymphatic drainage of the breast

Lymphatic drainage of breast originates from breast lobules and flows through intramammary nodes and channels into a subareolar plexus, called Sappey’s plexus. From this plexus, lymphatic drainage takes place through three main routes that parallel venous tributaries. Lymphatics from the left br...
Article

Breast tissue markers

Breast tissue markers are a common finding in breast radiology. These are typically inserted following percutaneous biopsy, either under ultrasound or sterotactic guidance. They can be invaluable in identifying known benign areas or shrinking/treated malignant lesions on follow up imaging. A nu...
Article

Malignant phyllodes tumor

Malignant phyllodes tumor of the breast, also known as phylloides tumors, accounts for up to a quarter of the phyllodes tumors. Please, refer to the main article on phyllodes tumors for a general discussion.  Pathology It is generally thought that it is the stromal component that becomes mali...
Article

Simple breast cyst

Simple breast cysts are a common benign cause of a breast lump in women. Clinical presentation Patients may be asymptomatic or present with a breast lump. Some patients may have associated pain or tenderness. Pathology Breast cysts are caused by blockage of the terminal acini with resultant ...
Article

Mondor disease (breast)

Mondor disease is a rare benign breast condition characterized by thrombophlebitis of the subcutaneous veins of the breast and anterior chest wall. It can also occur in the axilla, when it is called axillary web syndrome, or the penis.  Epidemiology Although Mondor disease is rarely reported i...
Article

Breast MRI

Breast MRI is the most sensitive method (>90%) for the detection of breast cancer. Its role in diagnosis and management continues to evolve 13. Terminology Dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE)-MRI provides information about the morphology and function of a lesion with high sensitivity but moderate ...
Article

Intramammary lymph nodes

The intramammary lymph nodes (IMLN) (a.k.a. intramammary nodes) are lymph nodes within the breast tissue. In breast imaging, they generally fall into BIRADS II lesions 7. They can be solitary or multiple. This article discusses normal (physiological) intramammary lymph nodes. Epidemiology Intr...
Article

Milk of calcium within a breast cyst

Milk of calcium within a breast cyst is a mammographic feature observed when there is dependent calcium layering within breast cysts. It is typically observed as "tea cup" or "crescent shaped" calcifications on a true lateral (LM or ML) view or occasionally on a MLO view. On a CC view, these cal...
Article

Breast venous malformation

Breast venous malformations (also known as breast hemangiomas) are benign vascular lesions occurring within breast tissue. Most breast venous malformations are so called cavernous malformations, which are found throughout the body. For a general discussion please refer to the general article on...
Article

Mastitis

Mastitis (rare plural: mastitides) refers to inflammation of the breast parenchyma, of which there are a number of subtypes: acute mastitis puerperal mastitis usually occurs from infection with Staphylococcus spp. during lactation non-puerperal mastitis: not related to lactation and usually o...
Article

Supraclavicular lymph nodes

The supraclavicular lymph nodes (often shortened to the supraclavicular nodes) are a paired group of lymph nodes located on each side in the hollow superior to the clavicle, close to the sternoclavicular joint. It is the final common pathway of the lymphatic system as it joins the central venous...

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