Articles
Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and continuously improved upon by countless contributing members. Our dedicated editors oversee each edit for accuracy and style. Find out more about articles.
105 results
Article
Cervical lymph node (staging)
Cervical lymph node staging refers to evaluating regional nodal metastasis from primary cancer of the head and neck. The following article reflects the 8th edition of the TNM staging system published by the American Joint Committee on Cancer, which is used for staging starting January 1, 2018 1,...
Article
Waldenström classification of Perthes disease
The Waldenström classification of Perthes disease refers to x-ray abnormalities and represents four temporal phases of the disease. These stages have been further subdivided in the modified Elizabethtown classification 2.
stage I: early
asymmetric femoral epiphyseal size (smaller on the affect...
Article
Breast cancer (staging)
Breast cancer staging refers to TNM classification of breast carcinomas. The system applies to epithelial malignancies and does not apply to breast sarcomas, phyllodes tumor, or breast lymphomas. The following article reflects the 8th edition manual published by the American Joint Committee on C...
Article
Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (staging)
Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) (also known as cervical dysplasia) is the potentailly premalignant stage in the dysplastic changes in the squamous epithelium of the cervix.
Grading of CIN is based on the degree of dysplasia seen in a sample of cervical tissue:
CIN I
similar to condy...
Article
Choriocarcinoma (staging)
The staging system for choriocarcinoma (usually refers to uterine choriocarcinoma) is the FIGO staging system and is as follows 1:
stage I: disease limited to the uterus
stage II: disease out of the uterus but limited to the female genital tract
stage III: metastasis in the lung with or with...
Article
Maxillary sinus carcinoma (staging)
Maxillary sinus carcinoma staging refers to TNM staging of epithelial malignancies involving the maxillary sinus. Applicable histologies include squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, sinonasal undifferentiated carcinoma, and other rarer carcinomas. The following article reflects the 8th editi...
Article
Nasal cavity and ethmoid sinus carcinoma (staging)
Nasal cavity and ethmoid sinus carcinoma staging refers to TNM staging of epithelial cancers involving the nasal cavity or ethmoid air cells. Applicable histologies include squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma and its variants, and other rarer epithelial malignancies other than mucosal melano...
Article
Transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder (staging)
Transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder staging uses the TNM system which has replaced the previously widely used Jewett-Strong-Marshall tumor staging system. It is very similar to the staging of TCC of the renal pelvis and staging of TCC of the ureter.
TNM staging (8th edition)
T
Ta: non-...
Article
Hypopharyngeal carcinoma (staging)
Hypopharyngeal carcinoma staging refers to TNM staging of carcinomas originating in the hypopharynx. This system most commonly applies to squamous cell carcinomas but can also apply to rarer epithelial malignancies in the region. The following article reflects the 8th edition published by the Am...
Article
FIGO staging system
The FIGO staging systems are determined by the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (Fédération Internationale de Gynécologie et d’Obstétrique).
In general, there are five stages:
stage 0: carcinoma in situ (common in cervical, vaginal, and vulval cancer)
stage I: confined to...
Article
Wall motion score index (echocardiography)
Calculation of the left ventricular wall motion score index (WMSI) with transthoracic echocardiography allows the semi-quantification of left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Calculation of the LVEF with a WMSI demonstrates stronger agreement with measures obtained by cardiac MRI, the gold ...
Article
Malignant pleural mesothelioma (TNM staging)
Below is the eighth edition of the TNM staging system for malignant pleural mesothelioma, which was published in 2018 1.
T - Tumor
Tx: primary tumor cannot be assessed
T0: no evidence of primary tumor
T1
involving ipsilateral parietal pleura (inc. mediastinal and diaphragmatic pleura) +/- v...
Article
Retinoblastoma (staging)
Retinoblastoma staging can be via a number of systems with various end-points and multiple systems are often used concurrently.
Staging
Reese Ellsworth classification
The Reese Ellsworth classification is assessed with fundoscopy and aims at predicting the chance of preserving the eye with ex...
Article
Vulval cancer (staging)
Staging of vulval cancer can be done with either the AJCC or FIGO systems, although both are similar.
Staging
FIGO
stage I: tumor confined to the vulva
IA: lesions ≤2 cm in size, confined to the vulva or perineum and with stromal invasion ≤1.0 mm*, no nodal metastasis
IB: lesions N2 cm in ...
Article
Primary urethral cancer (staging)
Primary urethral cancer staging often uses the TNM system and is as follows:
TNM staging
Primary tumor staging (T)
Tx: primary tumor cannot be assessed
T0: no evidence of primary tumor
Tis: carcinoma in situ
Ta: non-invasive papillary, polypoid, or verrucous carcinoma
T1: invasion of sube...
Article
Nasopharyngeal cancer (staging)
Nasopharyngeal cancer staging refers to TNM staging of malignant tumors of the nasopharynx. The vast majority of applicable tumors are nasopharyngeal carcinomas, but other epithelial malignancies of the nasopharynx are included, such as minor salivary gland tumors. The following article reflects...
Article
Olfactory neuroblastoma (staging)
Olfactory neuroblastomas (or esthesioneuroblastomas) are most frequently staged using a system proposed by Kadish et al. in 1976 1.
group a: limited to the nasal cavity
group b: limited to the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses
group c: extends beyond the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses:
...
Article
Lymphoma (staging)
Many lymphoma staging systems for both Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma have been developed.
The most widely used is the Lugano staging classification, which also separately defines criteria for response to treatment assessed by PET-CT or by CT alone. Patients having undergone immunomo...
Article
Hepatocellular carcinoma (staging)
Hepatocellular carcinoma staging classifications supersede the typical TNM staging system seen in most other epithelial cancers, as the TNM staging system has been found to not be as prognostically useful for stratification of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Several substitute staging sy...
Article
Okuda staging system
The Okuda staging system was an advance on earlier hepatocellular (HCC) staging classifications, in that it incorporated both cancer-related variables and liver function related variables to determine prognosis 1:
disease involving >50% of hepatic parenchyma
ascites
albumin ≤3 mg/dL
bilirubi...
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