Articles
Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and continuously improved upon by countless contributing members. Our dedicated editors oversee each edit for accuracy and style. Find out more about articles.
More than 200 results
Article
Multicentric breast cancer
A multicentric breast cancer is a term given to a breast cancer where there are two or more breast cancers separated by normal breast tissue (often taken as 5 cm of separation 4). It is related to but distinct from the term multifocal breast cancer.
At a pathological level It can also mean 2
t...
Article
Inframammary fold
The inframammary fold is the anatomical boundary formed at the inferior border of the breast, where it joins with the chest.
In mammography, it is an important landmark to identify on the mediolateral oblique view to assess image quality.
Article
Invasive lobular carcinoma of the breast
Invasive lobular carcinoma is the most common special type of invasive breast cancer after invasive breast carcinoma of no special type (invasive ductal carcinoma not otherwise specified).
Epidemiology
They represent 5-10% of all breast cancer.
Associations
There is a greater rate of contral...
Article
Vascular calcification in breast
Vascular calcifications in the breast are calcifications associated with blood vessels.
Epidemiology
They are most often seen in postmenopausal women with arteriosclerotic heart disease.
Associations
coronary arterial disease: considered an independent risk factor 2,3 (particularly in the...
Article
Breast cancer (staging)
Breast cancer staging refers to TNM classification of breast carcinomas. The system applies to epithelial malignancies and does not apply to breast sarcomas, phyllodes tumor, or breast lymphomas. The following article reflects the 8th edition manual published by the American Joint Committee on C...
Article
Breast curriculum
The breast curriculum is one of our curriculum articles and aims to be a collection of articles that represent core breast knowledge.
Definitions
Topics pertaining to the breast.
Anatomy
An understanding of the anatomy of relevant structures is essential. Core anatomical topics include:
du...
Article
Lactating adenoma
Lactating adenomas are benign breast tumors that typically occur in the peri-partum period, and are one of the most prevalent breast lesions during puerperium 4.
Clinical presentation
Lactating adenomas commonly present as painless breast masses late in pregnancy or in the postpartum period. T...
Article
Nipple adenoma
Nipple adenoma is a rare, benign breast lesion which often mimics a malignancy
Clinical presentation
Patient presents with bloody discharge from an ulcerated and painful nipple in one breast. There is itching associated with this lesion. Symptoms may show variation with the menstrual cycle. T...
Article
Axillary lymph nodes
The axillary lymph nodes, also known commonly as axillary nodes, are a group of lymph nodes in the axilla that receive lymph from vessels that drain the arm, the walls of the thorax, the breast and the upper walls of the abdomen.
Gross anatomy
There are five axillary lymph node groups, namely ...
Article
Screening for breast cancer
Screening for breast cancer includes activities which test members of asymptomatic populations for breast cancer. Many advanced countries have breast screening programs. The most widely adopted method for breast cancer screening is mammography.
There are few areas in imaging fraught with more c...
Article
Suspicious breast calcifications
Suspicious breast calcifications are calcifications within the breast that have a morphology and/or distribution on mammography indicating a significant probability of malignancy. These merit further workup and biopsy 1.
Radiographic features
Technique
Some calcifications may be more conspicu...
Article
Nottingham classification
The Nottingham classification is used at the end of work up of a breast lesion to help guide management.
A = malignant
lesion needs surgical excision regardless of biopsy result
B = indeterminate
will accept a benign biopsy result, but only if it is congruent with imaging, i.e. a well circum...
Article
Giant breast mass
Giant breast masses are defined as breast masses >5 cm and may represent a late presentation of breast pathology, particularly in developing countries. They may be single or multiple and either benign or malignant. Many of the underlying etiologies for giant breast masses are indistinguishable o...
Article
Breast calcifications
Breast calcifications are deposits of calcium salts in the breast, which are radio-opaque on mammography. The majority are benign, but they can be associated with cancer. The ability to diagnose and appropriately manage the significant microcalcifications and differentiate them from innocuous fi...
Article
Male breast cancer
Male breast cancer is exceptionally rare and only accounts for less than 0.25% of male malignancies and ~0.5-1% of all breast cancer (both genders). The diagnosis is sometimes delayed due to the patient's hesitancy to seek advice. Workup from a radiological point of view is the same as for women...
Article
Fat necrosis (breast)
Fat necrosis within the breast is a pathological process that occurs when there is saponification of local fat. It is a benign inflammatory process and is becoming increasingly common with the greater use of breast-conserving surgery and mammoplasty procedures.
Epidemiology
Most at risk are mi...
Article
Posterior nipple line
The posterior nipple line (PNL) refers to a line drawn posteriorly and perpendicularly from the nipple towards the pectoral muscle (or the posterior image edge in CC) on the mammograms. In an adequately positioned breast, the measurement difference of this line between a CC view and MLO view sho...
Article
Focus (breast MRI)
A focus in the context of breast MRI using the BI-RADS lexicon refers to a unique enhancing dot that is too small to characterize further morphologically as a mass or nonmass enhancement. Usually, a focus is smaller than 5 mm.
Radiographic appearance
MRI
T1 C-: no corresponding finding; possi...
Article
Causes of breast edema (mnemonic)
The causes of breast edema can be remembered using the mnemonic:
VIRALS
Mnemonic
V: venous obstruction
I: inflammatory breast cancer
R: radiotherapy
A: abscess
L: lymphatic obstruction
S: surgery (recent), secondaries 2
Article
Adenomatous breast lesions
Adenomatous breast lesions are benign tumors that grow from glandular parenchyma. The breast is a conglomeration of various glandular tissues, hence they can be of several types.
tubular adenoma
lactating adenoma
apocrine adenoma of the breast
pleomorphic adenoma of the breast
ductal adeno...
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