Articles
Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and continuously improved upon by countless contributing members. Our dedicated editors oversee each edit for accuracy and style. Find out more about articles.
More than 200 results
Article
Breast hypoplasia
Breast hypoplasia is a condition which is characterized by underdevelopment of the breast. Breast hypoplasia can be congenital or acquired.
Pathology
Congenital hypoplasia
Associations include:
ulnar-mammary syndrome
Poland syndrome
Turner syndrome
congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Acquired...
Article
Stewart-Treves syndrome
Stewart-Treves syndrome refers to an angiosarcoma seen in the setting of lymphedema 1.
It was classically attributed to lymphedemas induced by radical mastectomy to treat breast cancer. Nowadays, we know that it can arise in chronically lymphedematous regions of any cause 2.
The incidence is ...
Article
Microinvasive carcinoma of the breast
Microinvasive carcinoma is a type of epithelial breast cancer in which microscopic foci of tumor cells infiltrate the breast stroma.
Pathology
Microinvasive carcinoma is defined histologically as one or more clearly separate foci of tumor cells ≤1 mm in size infiltrating the mammary stroma 1. ...
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS) assessment category 4
A BI-RADS 4 lesion under the breast imaging-reporting and data system refers to a suspicious abnormality. BI-RADS 4 lesions may not have the characteristic morphology of breast cancer but have a definite probability of being malignant. A biopsy is recommended for these lesions. If possible, the ...
Article
Pseudoangiomatous stromal hyperplasia
Pseudoangiomatous stromal hyperplasia (PASH) is a benign, relatively uncommon form of stromal (mesenchymal) overgrowth within breast tissue that derives from a possible hormonal etiology.
Epidemiology
Typically affects women of reproductive age. It rarely affects males.
Clinical presentation...
Article
Male breast disease
Male breast disease includes a wide spectrum of conditions. Many conditions and entities that affect the female breast may also affect the male breast.
Pathology
Malignant
male breast cancer
lymphoma
dermatofibrosarcoma
Benign
gynecomastia
pseudogynecomastia: fat deposition within the b...
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS) assessment category 0
BI-RADS 0 is one of seven categories from the breast imaging-reporting and data system and is used when imaging is incomplete such as:
when further imaging or information is required, e.g. compression, magnification, special mammographic views, ultrasound
when requesting previous images not av...
Article
Pleural silicone granuloma
Pleural silicone granulomas result from an extremely rare situation where there is leakage of silicone from an implant rupture into the thorax.
Pathology
It is thought that scars from remote thoracotomy may provide a potential pathway for ruptured silicone to fistulise into the pleural space....
Article
Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (breast manifestations)
Breast involvement in granulomatosis with polyangiitis is seen in patients with avid systemic manifestations.
Clinical presentation
Clinically they can mimic carcinoma as a palpable, tender mass.
Pathology
Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (or formerly known as Wegeners granulomatosis) is a ...
Article
Large rod like breast calcification
Large rod like calcifications are benign calcifications seen within ectatic ducts.
Pathology
Associations
plasma cell mastitis
Radiographic features
>1 mm in diameter
may have lucent centers (if calcium is only in walls of ducts)
branching pattern may be seen
radiation towards the nipple...
Article
Pseudocalcifications in the breast
Pseudocalcifications and artifacts in the breast include
gold deposits in lymph nodes from intramuscular gold therapy for rheumatoid arthritis
adhesive tape
deodorant
film-screen artifacts
They should be differentiated from parenchymal calcification. Precautions to be taken are to ask th...
Article
Gestational and secretory hyperplasia
Gestational and secretory hyperplasia are pregnancy and lactation related physiological changes occurring in breast tissues.
Pathology
The normal physiology of pregnancy causes a lobular enlargement of terminal duct lobular units along with formation of new ones during the second month of gest...
Article
Breast varix
Breast varix is, as the name suggests, varices in the breast that are focally dilated veins in the breast.
Pathology
If varices are seen bilaterally then a cause for central venous obstruction (superior vena cava syndrome) could be the underlying etiology with the varices being a part of the ...
Article
Foramen of Langer
The foramen of Langer is a defect in the deep pectoralis fascia. It is a defect at the level of the third intercostal space, through which the upper lateral portion of the breast extends into the axilla forming the axillary tail of Spence.
Article
Suspensory ligament of the axilla
The suspensory ligament of the axilla is the inferior extension of the clavipectoral fascia on each side of the thorax.
Gross anatomy
The suspensory ligament of the axilla originates from the inferior border of pectoralis minor, where the 'leaflets' of the clavipectoral fascia have fused again...
Article
Anatomy curriculum
The anatomy curriculum is one of our curriculum articles and aims to be a collection of articles that represent the core anatomy knowledge for radiologists and imaging specialists.
General anatomy
Neuroanatomy
Head and neck anatomy
Thoracic anatomy
Abdominal and pelvic anatomy
Spinal anat...
Article
Tanner stages of normal breast development
Breast development occurs in two phases, one during fetal life and the second during puberty. In fetal life a rudimentary organ with simple ducts develop under maternal stimulus. During puberty, further complex branching of ducts and glandular tissue forms which is divided into five stages.
Tan...
Article
Breast lesion localization (mnemonic)
A mnemonic to help remember breast lesion localization when given a set of mammograms in mediolateral oblique (MLO) and 90-degree/true lateral (mediolateral [ML] or lateromedial [LM]) views to predict laterality is:
muffins rise and lead falls
This can help localize a finding on MLO during dia...
Article
Triangulation
Triangulation is a technique for localizing lesions seen on at least two views on 2D mammography.
Technique
hang the CC, MLO, and 90° lateral films (in that order) on the view box
the nipple on each film must be at the same level
use a ruler and place one end over the lesion on the 90° later...
Article
Non-puerperal mastitis
Non-puerperal mastitis, also known as Zuska disease, Zuska-Atkins disease or squamous metaplasia of lactiferous ducts (SMOLD), is a rare benign breast condition that is characterized by recurrent subareolar abscess formation, sometimes followed by chronic fistula formation and pus drainage. It i...
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