Items tagged “spine”

The cauda equina is the collective term given to nerve roots distal to the conus medullaris, which occupy the lumbar cistern.  Its name comes from the Latin for "horse's tail". The cauda equina is contained within the thecal sac and suspended in CSF. The lower sacral (S2-S5) and coccygeal root...

The sacrum is the penultimate segment of the vertebral column and also forms the posterior part of the bony pelvis. It transmits the total body weight between the lower appendicular skeleton and the axial skeleton. Gross anatomy The sacrum is an irregularly-shaped bone, shaped roughly like an ...

Cauda equina syndrome is considered an incomplete cord syndrome, even though it occurs below the conus. Cauda equina syndrome refers to a collection of symptoms and signs that result from severe compression of the descending lumbar and sacral nerve roots. It is most commonly caused by an acutely...

Spinal epidural abscess represents infection of the epidural space, located between the spinal dura mater and the vertebral periosteum. It can present with rapidly deteriorating neurological function due to compression. Imaging is best performed with MRI and emergency surgery is often required. ...

The spinal epidural (extradural) space is distinctly separate from and not continuous with the cranial epidural space. Its exact definition and description are contentious 3.  Gross anatomy The spinal epidural space is located in the spinal canal between the spinal dura mater and the vertebral...

Modic type 1 endplate change is the most controversial and important of the three types described (see Modic endplate change).  It is seen on MRI of the spine and represents the presence of low T1 and high T2 signal within the bone marrow of a vertebral body adjacent to a disk. Type 1 change can...

The axis is the second cervical vertebra, commonly called C2. It is an atypical cervical vertebra with unique features and important relations that make it easily recognisable. Its most prominent feature is the odontoid process (also know as the dens or peg), which is embryologically the body of...

The thoracolumbar injury classification and severity score (TLICS), also sometimes known as the thoracolumbar injury severity score (TISS), was developed by the Spine Trauma Group in 2005 to overcome some of the perceived difficulties regarding the use of other thoracolumbar spinal fracture clas...

The Y sign refers to a common appearance in lumbar epidural lipomatosis where excess fat in the extradural space compresses the dural sac into the shape of the letter "Y". NB: Y sign also refers to the appearance of incudomalleolar disarticulation on CT, more commonly known to radiologists as t...

The cervical spine (often shortened to C-spine) is the upper part of the spine extending from the skull base to the thorax at the level of the first vertebra with a rib attached to it. It normally consists of seven vertebrae. Its main function is to support the skull and maintain the relative po...

The atlas (plural: atlases) is the first cervical vertebra, commonly called C1. It is an atypical cervical vertebra with unique features. It articulates with the dens of the axis and the occiput, respectively allowing rotation of the head, and flexion, extension and lateral flexion of the head. ...

Of the seven cervical vertebrae, C3 through C6 have typical anatomy, while C7 looks very similar. C1 (atlas) and C2 (axis) have very distinct anatomical features. For a basic anatomic description of the structure a generic vertebra, see vertebrae. Gross anatomy small, oval-shaped vertebral bod...

Brown-Séquard syndrome, also known as hemicord syndrome, is the result of damage to, or impairment of, the left or right side of the spinal cord. It is characterized by a characteristic pattern of motor and sensory deficits that are determined by the decussation pattern of various white matter t...

Conus medullaris syndrome is caused by an injury or insult to the conus medullaris and lumbar nerve roots. It is a clinical subset of spinal cord injury syndromes. Injuries at the level of T12 to L2 vertebrae are most likely to result in conus medullaris syndrome. Clinical presentation Patient...

Cervical spine ligaments ordered from anterior to posterior include: anterior longitudinal ligament (ALL) anterior atlanto-occipital membrane apical ligament alar ligaments (paired) cruciate ligament of the atlas longitudinal band: joins the body of the axis to the foramen magnum transver...

Vertebral pneumatocysts are gas-filled cavities within the spinal vertebrae. They are most common at cervical levels. In general, vertebral pneumatocysts are less common than intraosseous pneumatocysts in the pelvis, especially adjacent to the sacroiliac joint. Pathogenesis Although not comple...

Transverse process fractures are common sequelae of trauma, although they are considered minor and stable lumbar spine fractures. There is a strong association between transverse process fractures and other traumatic injuries. Pathology Transverse process fracture most commonly occurs in the u...

The Levine and Edwards classification is the most widely used classification system of hangman fractures of the C2 vertebra 3. The injury, also known as traumatic spondylolisthesis of the axis, and the amount and direction of displacement determines stability and guides treatment. The classifica...

Allen and Ferguson classification is used for research purposes to classify subaxial spine injuries and is based purely on the mechanism of injury and position of the neck during injury.  This classification was proposed by Allen and Ferguson in 1982 1 and at the time of writing (February 2024)...

Subluxed facet joint is the mildest form of facet dislocation in which the ligamentous injury leads to partial uncovering of a facet joint (cf. complete uncovering in perched facet). This results in mild anterior displacement of one vertebral body on another (anterolisthesis).