Brainstem

Last revised by Frank Gaillard ◉ ◈ on 21 Feb 2025

Citation, DOI, disclosures and article data

Citation:

Jones J, Gaillard F, Chieng R, et al. Brainstem. Reference article, Radiopaedia.org (Accessed on 17 Mar 2025) https://doi.org/10.53347/rID-5793

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.53347/rID-5793

Permalink:

https://radiopaedia.org/articles/5793?embed_domain=staging.radpair.comradiopaedia-icon-144.pngfavicon.ico

rID:

5793

Article created:

22 Mar 2009, Jeremy Jones ◉

Disclosures:

At the time the article was created Jeremy Jones had no recorded disclosures.

View Jeremy Jones's current disclosures

Last revised:

21 Feb 2025, Frank Gaillard ◉ ◈

Disclosures:

At the time the article was last revised Frank Gaillard had no financial relationships to ineligible companies to disclose.

View Frank Gaillard's current disclosures

Revisions:

12 times, by 6 contributors - see full revision history and disclosures

Systems:

Central Nervous System

Sections:

Anatomy

Tags:

refs, brainstem

The brainstem is the most caudal part of the brain. It adjoins, is structurally continuous with the spinal cord and consists of the:

midbrain (mesencephalon)
pons (part of the metencephalon)
medulla oblongata (myelencephalon)

The brainstem provides the main motor and sensory innervation to the face and neck via the cranial nerves. It also provides the connection of the cerebrum, basal ganglia, diencephalon, cerebellum and spinal cord. Additionally, there are other brainstem nuclei.

The brainstem also plays an important role in the regulation of cardiac and respiratory function. It also regulates the central nervous system and is pivotal in maintaining consciousness and regulating the sleep cycle.

Some taxonomies describe the brainstem as only containing the medulla oblongata and pons, whereas others include the midbrain.

Radiological features

Ultrasound

The brainstem structures can be seen by positioning the ultrasound probe against the squamous suture of the temporal bone or against the upper nuchal area using the foramen magnum as the window. Midbrain, pons, and medulla all appear hypoechoic on ultrasound. Hyperchoic brainstem may indicate pathology ⁷.

Quiz questions

References

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Cases and figures

Figure 1: illustration - brainstem
Figure 2: diagram - brainstem
Figure 3: illustration - brainstem - sagittal image
Figure 4: diagram - brainstem
Figure 5: diagram - brainstem
Figure 6: embryology
Figure 7: arterial vascular territories (illustration)
Figure 8: venous vascular territories (illustration)
Figure 8: venous vascular territories of the medial cerebral cortex (illustration)
Figure 9: decussation of fibres in the brainstem (Gray's illustration)
Figure 10: brainstem tracts (Gray's illustrations)
Figure 11: brainstem tracts (Gray's illustrations)
Figure 12: brainstem tracts (Gray's illustrations)
Figure 13: brainstem cross-sectional anatomy (diagrams)
Figure 14: brainstem arterial territories