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Myocardial perfusion and viability

Myocardial perfusion and viability assessment is important for many reasons: to diagnose, locate and grade the severity of coronary artery disease to identify candidates who would benefit from revascularization to evaluate response to revascularization Terminology Stunned myocardium Stunne...

Eosinophilic endocarditis

Eosinophilic endocarditis, also known as Löffler (Loeffler) endocarditis, is one of the cardiac manifestations of idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome. It is also considered a form of cardiomyopathy. Epidemiology There is limited information on the incidence of eosinophilic endocarditis. The ...

Unroofed coronary sinus

An unroofed coronary sinus, a.k.a. coronary sinus type ASD, is a rare variant of atrial septal defect (ASD). The atrial wall between the coronary sinus and left atrium is either partially or completely absent, resulting in a right-to-left shunt. It is associated with persistent left-sided super...

Cardiac conduction device lead dislodgement

Lead dislodgement, also known as twiddler syndrome, is a complication of implanted cardiac conduction devices due to patient manipulation of the pulse generator, typically diagnosed on plain chest radiograph. A variation of this complication can also occur with implantable ports, deep brain sti...

Tachycardia induced cardiomyopathy

Tachycardia induced cardiomyopathy (TIC) (or tachycardiomyopathy) is considered a reversible form of acquired cardiomyopathy where there is impaired left ventricular systolic dysfunction precipitated by a tachycardia or a tachyarrhythmia. Typically there is an impairment left ventricular systol...

Major aortopulmonary collateral arteries

Major aortopulmonary collateral arteries (MAPCAs) are persistent tortuous fetal arteries that arise from the descending aorta and supply blood to pulmonary arteries in the lungs usually at the posterior aspect of hilum. Pathology Embryologically, the intersegmental arteries regress with the no...

Surgically-created cardiac shunts (mnemonic)

A mnemonic for surgically-created cardiac shunts for congenital heart disease is: Great Flow Really Would Be Perfect The mnemonic is ordered by the position of the shunt antegrade to normal blood flow through the heart, proceeding from the systemic venous system into the right heart, and then...

Interarterial course of the right coronary artery

Interarterial course of the right coronary artery may occur if the right coronary artery (RCA) has an aberrant origin from the left coronary sinus. The interarterial course occurs because the artery passes between the ascending aorta and the pulmonary trunk. It is an uncommon anatomic variant w...

Intra-atrial course of the right coronary artery

Intra-atrial course of the right coronary artery is an uncommon anatomic variation in the course of the right coronary artery, usually involving the mid and distal segments, where the vessel partially or completely courses through the right atrial chamber. It is the most common intracavitary (in...

Vagoglossopharyngeal neuralgia

Vagoglossopharyngeal neuralgia is an uncommon presentation of glossopharyngeal neuralgia where the typical symptoms of pain are associated with cardiac symptoms including arrhythmias, asystole, and syncope. It is believed to be due to complex interconnections between the nervus intermedius, the...

Aortic annulus

The aortic annulus is a fibrous ring at the aortic orifice to the front and right of the atrioventricular aortic valve and is considered the transition point between the left ventricle and aortic root. The annulus is part of the fibrous skeleton of the heart. It is at the level of the sinus of V...

Circumflex artery

The circumflex artery (Cx) is one of the two major coronary arteries that arise from the bifurcation of the left main coronary artery (the other branch being the left anterior descending (LAD) artery). Terminology The circumflex artery can be referred to by multiple terms: circumflex artery (...

Diagonal branches of the left anterior descending artery

Diagonal branches of the left anterior descending coronary artery supply blood flow to the anterior and anterolateral walls of the left ventricle. There are usually denoted as D1, D2, D3, etc. There are termed "diagonal" due to them branching from their parent vessel at acute angles. They ext...

Left anterior descending artery

The left anterior descending (LAD) artery, also known as the anterior interventricular branch, is one of the two branches of the left coronary artery (the other branch being the circumflex (Cx) artery). Terminology The left anterior descending artery is often given the sobriquet, the widow-mak...

Cardiovascular shunts

Cardiovascular (cardiac) shunts are abnormal connections between the pulmonary and systemic circulations. Most commonly they are the result of congenital heart disease. Pathology Blood can either be shunted from the systemic circulation to pulmonary circulation (i.e. 'left-to-right shunt') or ...

Aortic root

The aortic root is the first part of the aorta containing parts of the aortic valve and connects the heart to the systemic circulation. Gross anatomy The aortic root is located between the aortic annulus (the junction of the outflow tract of the left ventricle and the aortic valve) and the si...

Heyde syndrome

Heyde syndrome is an association between aortic valve stenosis and gastrointestinal hemorrhage. The etiology of the gastrointestinal bleeding in this setting is uncertain, but it is thought to be related to intestinal angiodysplasia. The strength of this association independent of age-related d...

Pericardial hemangioma

Pericardial hemangioma is a location specific rare subtype of cardiac hemangioma which arises from either the parietal or visceral (commoner 3) pericardial layers. Treatment and prognosis It is a benign tumor. Treatment option vary from monitoring to resection. See also pericardial tumors ...

Mitral valve disease

Mitral valve disease mostly comprises two main functional abnormalities, which can occur in isolation or in combination: mitral regurgitation mitral stenosis In addition, other pathologies that affect the mitral valve include: mitral valve prolapse mitral annular calcification mitral valve...

Conus artery

The conus artery is a small early branch off the right coronary artery (RCA) circulation. Gross anatomy Supply The artery has a variable distribution, but usually supplies a region of the anterior interventricular septum and the conus of the main pulmonary artery (hence its name). Variant an...

Fontan procedure

The Fontan procedure is a repair surgical strategy for congenital cardiac anomalies. It is not usually used in isolation, but in combination with other repair procedures in a staged manner in an attempt to correct the underlying cardiac pathology. Rationale The procedure attempts to bypass the...

Stunned myocardium

Stunned myocardium refers to a situation in which an acute transient myocardial ischemic event results in a prolonged wall motion abnormality which eventually resolves. The term is usually distinguished from "hibernating" myocardium, in which a chronic ischemic process leads to chronic left ven...

Ace-of-spades sign (heart)

Ace-of-spades sign refers to the pathognomonic configuration of the left ventricle as seen in apical hypertrophic cardiomyopathy 1-3. It consists of marked ventricular wall thickening at the apex resulting in cavity narrowing at the apex with a relatively normal appearance of the mid-ventricula...

Great cardiac vein

The great cardiac vein (GCV) runs in the anterior interventricular groove and drains the anterior aspect of the heart where it is the venous complement of the left anterior descending artery. It is the main tributary of the coronary sinus. Gross anatomy It begins on the anterior surface of th...

Cardiac silhouette

Cardiac silhouette refers to the outline of the heart as seen on frontal and lateral chest radiographs and forms part of the cardiomediastinal contour. The size and shape of the cardiac silhouette provide useful clues for underlying disease. Radiographic features From the frontal projection, t...

Right atrium

The right atrium (RA) (plural: atria) is one of the four chambers of the human heart, and is the first chamber to receive deoxygenated blood returning from the body, via the two venae cavae. It plays an important role in originating and regulating the conduction of the heart. Gross anatomy The...

High-output cardiac failure

High output cardiac failure refers to a state of cardiac failure that is associated with a higher than normal cardiac output which is still not sufficient for body tissue demands. Clinical presentation Patients can present with a number of symptoms of varying degrees which include tachycardia,...

Iron overload cardiomyopathy

Iron overload cardiomyopathy (IOC) refers to a secondary form of cardiomyopathy resulting from the accumulation of iron in the myocardium. It occurs mainly due to genetically determined disorders of iron metabolism (e.g. cardiomyopathy in hemochromatosis, thalassemia 6,7) or multiple transfusion...

Cardiomyopathy in hemochromatosis

Cardiomyopathy in hemochromatosis refers to an iron overload cardiomyopathy which can occur in those with the condition. In primary hemochromatosis leading to iron overload, the cardiomyopathy has classically been categorized as an infiltrative cause of restrictive cardiomyopathy. While in thos...

Chest x-ray review: circulation

Chest x-ray review is a key competency for medical students, junior doctors and other allied health professionals. Using A, B, C, D, E is a helpful and systematic method for chest x-ray review where C refers to circulation and assessment of the heart and cardiomediastinal contour. Summary intr...

Elliott et al. classification of cardiomyopathies

The Elliott et al. classification system of cardiomyopathies is one of the cardiomyopathy classification systems. This was published by the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases. This places emphasis on phenotypic classification 1-2. See also cardi...

Cardiomyopathy

Cardiomyopathy is defined as a "disease of the myocardium with associated cardiac dysfunction" 1. It has been classified according to several systems: 1995 WHO/ISFC cardiomyopathy classification system Elliott et al. classification system: published by the European Society of Cardiology Workin...

Idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy

Idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy is a subtype of dilated cardiomyopathy. It is a type of non-ischemic cardiomyopathy where no underlying cause can be found. Epidemiology This form of cardiomyopathy may account for up to 50% of all dilated cardiomyopathies 4. Patients usually ranging around 20...

Cardiac segmentation model

The American Heart Association (AHA) has published the nomenclature and segmentation of the left ventricular myocardium (the cardiac segmentation model), now widely used for the description of disease-affected myocardial territories and wall function. There are 17 segments that have a reasonabl...

Cardiac lymphoma

Cardiac lymphoma is a rare tumor of the myocardium and/or pericardium. It may be considered as primary or secondary. Epidemiology Primary cardiac lymphoma is a rare occurrence, representing only 10% of primary malignant cardiac tumors (1% of all primary cardiac tumors). Secondary involvement ...

Coronary sinus

The coronary sinus is the largest cardiac venous structure. It returns the majority of the blood supply for the left ventricle to the right atrium. Gross anatomy The coronary sinus courses along the posterior wall of the left atrium into the left atrioventricular groove. It normally drains int...

Coronary veins

The coronary veins return deoxygenated blood from the myocardium back to the right atrium. Most venous blood returns via the coronary sinus. Coronary venous anatomy is highly variable, but is generally comprised of three groups: cardiac veins which drain into the coronary sinus: great cardiac ...

Eustachian valve

The Eustachian valve, also known as the "valve of the inferior vena cava", is a ridge of variable thickness in the inferior right atrium. It is a remnant of a fetal structure that directed incoming oxygenated blood to the foramen ovale and away from the right atrium. Radiographic features In...

Patent foramen ovale

A patent foramen ovale (PFO) is an anatomical variant of the atrial septum in which there is incomplete fusion of the interface between the embryologic septum primum and secundum; this may result in intracardiac shunting. Terminology Despite anatomical proximity and potential hemodynamic simi...

Pulmonary vein stenosis

Pulmonary vein stenosis refers to a spectrum of conditions characterized by narrowing of the pulmonary veins. It can be congenital or acquired. primary pulmonary vein stenosis - occurs in children secondary pulmonary vein stenosis - occurs in adults and usually associated with some identifiabl...

Unilateral pulmonary vein atresia

Unilateral pulmonary vein atresia is a type of pulmonary vein atresia. Clinical presentation The condition usually present in infancy or childhood with recurrent episodes of pneumonia and/or hemoptysis. Presentation in adulthood does occur but is uncommon. Pathology It results from failure o...

Senning repair

The Senning repair is one of two "atrial switch" procedures used to functionally correct transposition of the great arteries (the other being the Mustard repair). The two repairs share a similar fundamental principle. Systemic blood flow is redirected away from the right ventricle and toward t...

Double oblique multiplanar reconstruction

Double oblique is a type of multiplanar reconstruction used in cardiac cross-sectional imaging. It is useful for an accurate assessment of the ascending aorta and aortic annulus, and is particularly useful for pre- and post-procedure evaluation of a transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR)....

Coronary MR angiography

Coronary MR angiography (coronary MRA) is a developing approach to imaging the coronary arteries. Advantages of coronary MRA include avoidance of the intravenous iodinated contrast and ionizing radiation used in coronary CT angiography and conventional angiography. A disadvantage of coronary M...

Pulmonary atresia with intact interventricular septum

Pulmonary atresia with intact interventricular septum (PA-IVS) is a subtype of pulmonary atresia that presents as cyanotic congenital heart disease. Pathology PA-IVS is the combination of obstruction of the pulmonary outflow tract from pulmonary valve atresia without a ventricular septal defe...

Myocarditis

Myocarditis (rare plural: myocarditides) is a general term referring to inflammation of the myocardium. Clinical presentation Clinical presentation is variable in severity, ranging from asymptomatic to cardiogenic shock, but it typically is associated with other viral symptoms, including feve...

Peripartum/postpartum cardiomyopathy

Peripartum/postpartum cardiomyopathy is a dilated cardiomyopathy that may occur in the last trimester of pregnancy through the first several months postpartum. Epidemiology The estimated incidence in the United States ranges from one in 900 to one in 4000 live births, with an increased inciden...

Transient ischemic dilatation

Transient ischemic dilatation (TID) is a paradoxical phenomenon seen in myocardial perfusion SPECT imaging. With severe balanced coronary artery disease, myocardial ischemia may result in apparent enlargement of the left ventricular cavity during stress. The cause of this is not entirely clea...

Inferior interventricular artery

The inferior interventricular artery (also known as the posterior interventricular artery or posterior descending artery, PDA) is an artery that extends along the inferior interventricular sulcus. The artery supplies the posterior third of the interventricular septum through posterior septal per...

Arterial switch procedure

The arterial switch procedure, also known as the Jatene switch procedure, is an intervention designed to correct D-transposition of the great arteries (D-TGA) at the level of the aorta and main pulmonary artery. It is generally preferred over atrial switch procedures for simple D-TGA due to impr...

Septal bounce

Septal bounce is a sign of ventricular interdependence on echocardiography, cardiac CT, and cardiac MRI, manifested by paradoxical interventricular septal movement during early diastole (i.e. initial septal movement towards and then away from the left ventricle) seen mainly in constrictive peric...

Porcelain left atrium

Porcelain left atrium, also known as coconut left atrium, is a term used when a large part of or the entire left atrial wall becomes calcified. It can occur as a rare consequence of endocarditis (with underlying rheumatic heart disease). It has also been described in the setting of end-stage ren...

Acute right heart syndrome

Acute right heart syndrome (ARHS) is defined as a sudden deterioration in right ventricular (RV) function and failure of the RV to deliver adequate blood flow to the pulmonary circulation. This can result in systemic hypoperfusion. Pathology ARHS can occur in several settings 1 in the setting...

Right heart strain

Right heart strain (or more precisely right ventricular strain) is a term given to denote the presence of right ventricular dysfunction usually in the absence of an underlying cardiomyopathy. It can manifest as an acute right heart syndrome. Pathology Right heart strain can often occur as a re...

Moderator band

The moderator band, also called the septomarginal trabecula, is a consistent structure in the morphologic right ventricle and can be helpful as a landmark in situations where the ventricles may be ambiguous (i.e. in some forms of congenital heart disease). The term "septomarginal" is descriptiv...

Cor pulmonale

Cor pulmonale refers to altered structure and function of the right ventricle due to chronic lung disease-related pulmonary hypertension (group 3). The mechanism involves hypoxic vasoconstriction which leads to permanent changes in the pulmonary vascular bed. Cor pulmonale generally progresses s...

Pectinate muscles

The pectinate muscles are "teeth of a comb" shaped parallel muscular columns that are present on the inner wall of the right and left atria. The right atrium has thick and coarse pectinate muscles while these are few smooth and thinner in the left atrium. A prominent pectinate muscle in the rig...

Crista terminalis

The crista terminalis is a smooth muscular ridge in the superior aspect of the right atrium, formed following resorption of the right valve of the sinus venosus. It represents the junction between the sinus venarum, the "smooth" portion of the right atrium derived from the embryologic sinus veno...

Determination of atrial situs

Atrial situs refers to the relative position of the cardiac atria in relation to abdominal viscera and the midline. Pathology Identification of atrial situs is an important initial step in the antenatal and postnatal diagnosis of cardiac structural and situs anomalies. Radiographic features ...

Pericardial window

Pericardial window or fenestration is a procedure performed to create a fistula or "window" from the pericardial space to the pleural space. It is done to allow a pericardial effusion to drain the chest cavity in order to relieve situations with increased pressures such as with cardiac tamponade.

Heart failure (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Heart failure is a syndrome of cardiac ventricular dysfunction, where the heart is unable to pump sufficiently to meet the body's blood flow requirements. Reference article This is a summary article; read more in our arti...

Milking effect

Milking effect phenomenon is a pathognomonic angiographic finding in myocardial bridging of coronary arteries. Systolic compression of coronary vessels with partial or complete decompression during diastole is described as milking effect. Its significance lies in: increased risk of thrombus fo...

Agatston score

Agatston score is a semi-automated tool to calculate a score based on the extent of coronary artery calcification detected by an unenhanced low-dose CT scan, which is routinely performed in patients undergoing cardiac CT. Due to an extensive body of research, it allows for early risk stratificat...

Figure of eight appearance

The following lesions may resemble a figure of eight (sometimes referred to as snowman shaped): supracardiac variety of total anomalous pulmonary venous return 1 pituitary macroadenoma with suprasellar extension 2 intraspinal neurofibroma with extraspinal extension through neural for...

Pericardial teratoma

Pericardial teratomas are type of primary pericardial tumor. They are usually diagnosed in infants and neonates. As with all teratomas, they are comprised of contain endodermal, mesodermal and neuroectodermal germinal layers. While they are usually benign tumors, they may be life-threatening du...

Panzerherz (heart)

Panzerherz (or armoured heart) is a term used to describe the appearance of the heart in calcified constrictive pericarditis. The pericardium becomes circumferentially thickened with calcification, limiting the ability of the heart to contract. The rim of dense calcification describes how the h...

Superior cavoatrial junction

The superior cavoatrial junction (SCAJ), generally referred to as simply the cavoatrial junction (CAJ), is the junction of the right lateral border of the superior vena cava (SVC) and the superior border of the right atrium. It is an important landmark to recognize because it marks an optimum s...

CT scanner (evolution)

CT scanners were first introduced in 1971 with a single detector for brain study under the leadership of Sir Godfrey Hounsfield, an electrical engineer at EMI (Electric and Musical Industries Ltd). Thereafter, it has undergone multiple improvements, with an increase in the number of detectors an...

Double outlet left ventricle

Double outlet left ventricle (DOLV) is an extremely rare congenital cardiac anomaly where both the aorta and pulmonary trunk arise from the anatomical left ventricle. It is usually classified as a conotruncal anomaly and is often associated with a ventricular septal defect with normal continuity...

Napkin-ring sign (heart)

The napkin-ring sign is a feature of high-risk coronary artery atherosclerotic plaque on CT coronary angiogram (coronary CTA). It has been shown to possess a high predictive value in predicting future cardiac events and is considered one of the imaging correlates of an unstable plaque. It is n...

Ortner syndrome

Ortner syndrome, also known as cardiovocal syndrome, is characterized by hoarse voice resulting from left recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy secondary to a cardiovascular disorder. Pathology Left recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy in this condition is due to traction or compression of the nerve betw...

Dressler syndrome

Dressler syndrome (DS) is a delayed immune-mediated or secondary pericarditis developing weeks to months after a myocardial infarction (MI). Terminology Dressler syndrome is not to be confused with pericarditis epistenocardica (which is seen earlier in the post-myocardial infarction period) an...

Tricuspid valve stenosis

Tricuspid valve stenosis is a valvulopathy that describes narrowing of the opening of the tricuspid valve between the right ventricle and the right atrium. Epidemiology MS is seen more commonly in women and in countries, generally developing nations, where rheumatic fever is common 1,2. Clini...

Isomerism

Isomerism is a term which in general means 'mirror-image' and refers to finding normally-asymmetric bilateral structures to be similar. It is used in the context of heterotaxy and is of two types: left isomerism right isomerism Left isomerism Mirror image of the structures on the left side o...

Egg-on-a-string sign (heart)

Egg-on-a-string sign, also referred to as egg on its side, refers to the cardiomediastinal silhouette seen in transposition of the great arteries (TGA). The heart appears globular due to an abnormal convexity of the right atrial border and left atrial enlargement and therefore appears like an ...

Snowman sign (total anomalous pulmonary venous return)

Snowman sign refers to the configuration of the heart and the superior mediastinal borders resembling a snowman. This is seen in total anomalous pulmonary venous return (TAPVR) type I (supracardiac type). It is also referred to as the figure of 8 sign. It is an abnormality of the fetal circulat...

Prosthetic heart valve

Prosthetic heart valves are common. The four valves of the heart may all be surgically replaced. However, the aortic and mitral valves are the most commonly replaced. Replacements may be tissue or metallic valves, only the latter being visualized on imaging investigations. Sometimes the annulus...

Cardiac tuberculosis

Cardiac tuberculosis refers to the rare infection of the heart with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Pathology Generally associated with and occurring as a complication of mediastinal and pulmonary tuberculosis. Pericardial and myocardial involvement is known. Endocardial spread may occur from myo...

Transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI)

Transcatheter aortic valve implantation or replacement (TAVI/TAVR) is a technique to replace the aortic valve through a transvascular or transapical approach. Compared to traditional open aortic valve replacement with sternotomy and a heart-lung bypass machine, the TAVI technique is less invasiv...

Cardiac plexus

The cardiac plexus is a network of autonomic nerves and ganglia situated at the base of the heart. It is formed by cardiac branches derived from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Gross anatomy Parasympathetic cardiac nerves reach the heart from the vagus nerve (cranial ...

Cardiac CT

Computed tomography of the heart or cardiac CT is routinely performed to gain knowledge about cardiac or coronary anatomy, to detect or diagnose coronary artery disease (CAD), to evaluate patency of coronary artery bypass grafts or implanted coronary stents or to evaluate volumetry and cardiac f...

Fractional flow reserve

Fractional flow reserve (FFR) is a technique to evaluate the hemodynamic relevance of coronary artery stenoses 1,2. It is defined as "the ratio of maximal flow achievable in the stenotic coronary artery to the maximal flow achievable in the same coronary artery if it was normal" 1. Fractional f...

Left ventricle

The left ventricle is one of four heart chambers. It receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium and pumps it into the systemic circulation via the aorta. Gross anatomy The left ventricle is conical in shape with an anteroinferiorly projecting apex and is longer with thicker walls than the ...

Innervation of the heart

The heart has extrinsic and intrinsic innervation, which allows the heart to continue beating if its nerve supply is disrupted (e.g. in cardiac transplant). The extrinsic supply is from parasympathetic (from the vagus nerve) and sympathetic nerves from both the superficial and deep cardiac plex...

Pseudocoarctation of the aorta

Pseudocoarctation of the aorta is a very rare anomaly characterized by kinking or buckling of the descending aorta at the level of the ligamentum arteriosum without a pressure gradient across the lesion. Epidemiology Associations Rarely reported associations include 3: congenital cardiac ano...

Epipericardial fat necrosis

Epipericardial fat necrosis (also sometimes purely categorized as pericardial fat necrosis or epicardial fat necrosis) is a rare self-limiting cause of acute pleuritic pain in an otherwise healthy individual, without fever or cough. It occurs external to the pericardium. Clinical presentation ...

Hemochromatosis (cardiac manifestations)

Cardiac involvement in hemochromatosis typically occurs with primary hemochromatosis, as the organ is usually spared in the secondary form of the disease. For a general discussion, and for links to other system specific manifestations, please refer to the article on hemochromatosis. Epidemiol...

Shmoo sign

Shmoo sign refers to the appearance of a prominent, rounded left ventricle and dilated aorta on a plain PA chest radiograph giving the appearance of Shmoo, a fictional cartoon character in the comic strip Li'l Abner, which first appeared in 1948 5. This sign is indicative of left ventricular enl...

Deductive echocardiography

Deductive echocardiography is a step-by-step approach in diagnosing and differentiating congenital heart disease. Parameters assessed position of heart levocardia dextrocardia visceroatrial situs solitus inversus ambiguus ventricular loop D-loop L-loop conotruncus normal transpose...

Myocardial bridging of the coronary arteries

Myocardial bridging is a common congenital anomaly of the coronary arteries where a coronary artery courses through the myocardium. Epidemiology It is found approximately in 20-30% of the adult population in autopsy studies. The incidence in coronary angiograms is between 2-15% and can be eas...

Pulmonary hypertension (2008 classification)

The classification system for pulmonary hypertension was revised at the 4th World Symposium on Pulmonary Hypertension held in Dana Point, California, in 2008 1. This system is as follows: group 1: pulmonary arterial hypertension 1.1: idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension 1.2: heritable ...

Systemic lupus erythematosus (thoracic manifestations)

Thoracic manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus can be variable. For a general discussion, and for links to other system specific manifestations, please refer to the article on systemic lupus erythematosus. Pathology Pleuropulmonary manifestations pleuritis: considered one of the c...

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, also known as stress cardiomyopathy, apical ballooning syndrome, or broken heart syndrome, is a condition characterized by transient regional abnormal cardiac wall motion, not confined to a single coronary arterial territory. Epidemiology It has been described predomi...

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