Articles
Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and continuously improved upon by countless contributing members. Our dedicated editors oversee each edit for accuracy and style. Find out more about articles.
620 results found
Article
Cervical cancer (staging)
Staging of cervical cancer can either be based on the TNM or FIGO system.
Classification
Revised FIGO staging of cervical carcinoma (2018)
FIGO no longer includes stage 0 (Tis)
I: confined to cervix uteri (extension to the corpus should be disregarded)
IA: invasive carcinoma only diagnosed ...
Article
Hysterosalpingogram
A hysterosalpingogram (HSG) is a fluoroscopic examination of the uterus and the fallopian tubes, most commonly used in the investigation of infertility or recurrent spontaneous abortions.
Indications
infertility: to assess uterine morphology and tubal patency
Contraindications
pregnancy
act...
Article
Ovarian cancer (staging)
The most commonly adopted ovarian cancer staging system is the FIGO staging system. The staging system is from 2014 1:
CT is considered the best imaging modality for staging ovarian cancer 4.
stage I: tumour limited to the ovaries
stage Ia:
tumour limited to one ovary
capsule intact
no ...
Article
Ovarian serous tumours
Ovarian serous neoplasms are the commonest of four general types of the epithelial ovarian tumours, and are more prevalent than the mucinous ovarian tumours.
Serous ovarian neoplasms are subdivided into benign, borderline, and malignant lesions according to their malignant potential and clinica...
Article
Psammoma bodies
Psammoma bodies are round microscopic calcific collections. It is a form of dystrophic calcification. Necrotic cells form the focus for surrounding calcific deposition. They have a lamellated concentric calcified structure, sometimes large enough to be seen on CT.
Psammoma bodies are found in ...
Article
Pelvic congestion syndrome
Pelvic congestion syndrome (some prefer pelvic venous insufficiency 9 ) is a condition that results from retrograde flow through incompetent valves in ovarian veins resulting in pelvic varices and pelvic pain. It is a commonly missed and potentially treatable cause of chronic abdominopelvic pain...
Article
Adenomyosis
Adenomyosis (or uterine adenomyosis) is a common uterine condition of ectopic endometrial tissue in the myometrium, sometimes considered a spectrum of endometriosis. Although most commonly asymptomatic, it may present with menorrhagia and dysmenorrhoea.
Pelvic imaging (i.e. ultrasound, MRI) may...
Article
Venetian blind appearance (uterus)
The Venetian blind (a.k.a. rain shower 2) appearance is a sonographic finding that is typically associated with adenomyosis but can also occur in uterine fibroids. The Venetian blind appearance associated with adenomyosis is typically "thin" whereas when associated with uterine fibroids, there a...
Article
Polyhydramnios
Polyhydramnios refers to a situation where the amniotic fluid volume is more than expected for gestational age.
It is generally defined as:
amniotic fluid index (AFI) >25 cm, though the cutoff in some centres is being reduced to 24 cm 14
largest fluid pocket depth (maximal vertical pocket) >8...
Article
Sonographic values in obstetrics and gynaecology
Obstetric and gynaecological ultrasound is rampant with numerous cut-off values. Some of these get revised over the years. The following list is a useful aid to refer to and revise.
1 mm
rate of increase of a mean sac diameter per day in early pregnancy
2 mm
generally accepted value for a th...
Article
Endometrioma
Endometriomas, also known as chocolate cysts or endometriotic cysts, are a localised form of endometriosis and are usually within the ovary. They are readily diagnosed on ultrasound, with most demonstrating classical radiographic features.
Epidemiology
These occur in up to 10% of women of rep...
Article
Round ligament varicosities
Round ligament varicosities are dilated and tortuous veins in the round ligament, these are rare although most commonly seen during pregnancy and the postpartum period. They constitute an important differential diagnosis for inguinal masses as to avoid unnecessary surgery and associated complica...
Article
1-2-3 rule (ovary)
The 1-2-3 rule is a simple aide-mémoire describing the nomenclature of any small simple anechoic cystic appearing structure within an ovary on ultrasound:
<1 cm = follicle
1-2 cm = dominant follicle
>3 cm = cyst
Article
Lower vaginal atresia
Lower vaginal atresia is a type of vaginal atresia where the lower third of the vagina fails to develop.
Clinical presentation
Patients may present with primary amenorrhoea with progressive cyclical abdominal pain.
Pathology
It is usually not considered a type of Mullerian duct anomaly. It o...
Article
Vaginal atresia
Vaginal atresia refers to a spectrum of anomalies comprising of failure to form a part or all of the vagina.
Epidemiology
It is considered the second most common cause of primary amenorrhoea. The estimated
Incidence is at ~ 2 in 10000 women.
Clinical presentation
The most common symptom...
Article
Physiological pelvic intraperitoneal fluid
Physiological pelvic intraperitoneal fluid refers to the presence of a small volume of free fluid in the pelvis, particularly the pouch of Douglas. It occurs in young females of reproductive age and can be a mimic of traumatic free fluid in abdominal trauma.
Unfortunately, pelvic free fluid may...
Article
Endometriosis
Endometriosis is a common, chronic gynaecological condition defined as the presence of functional endometrial glands and stroma-like lesions outside the uterus. It manifests in three ways: superficial (peritoneal) disease, ovarian disease (endometriomas), and deep endometriosis.
Endometriosis i...
Article
Sliding sign
The sliding sign is a dynamic sonographic sign performed during transvaginal ultrasound (TVS) of women with suspected pelvic endometriosis. The loss of the normal sliding sign indicates pouch of Douglas (POD) obliteration due to adhesions and is suggestive of deep infiltrating endometriosis (DIE...
Article
Placental site trophoblastic tumour
Placental site trophoblastic tumours (PSTT) are rare and one of the least common (~0.2% 7) forms of gestational trophoblastic disease.
Epidemiology
Placental site trophoblastic tumours typically occur in women of reproductive age with an average age of ~30 years. They may occur after a normal ...
Article
Monochorionic monoamniotic twin pregnancy
A monochorionic monoamniotic (MCMA) twin pregnancy is a subtype of monozygotic twin pregnancy. These fetuses share a single chorionic sac, a single amniotic sac, and, in general, a single yolk sac.
Epidemiology
It accounts for the minority (~5%) of monozygotic twin pregnancies and ~1-2% of al...
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