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Investigating diplopia (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Diplopia, also known as double vision, is a visual symptom of seeing two images of a single object. Reference article This is a summary article; there is not a more in-depth reference article currently. Summary epidemio...

Rim sign (choledocholithiasis)

The rim sign of choledocholithiasis is a finding seen on contrast-enhanced CT and comprises a faint rim of increased density along the margin of a low-density area of calculus 1.

Baker classification of acetabular erosion in hip hemiarthroplasty

The Baker classification of acetabular erosion in hip hemiarthroplasty is commonly used to grade severity 1-3. Classification Acetabular erosion is assessed on frontal radiographs 1: grade 0: no erosion grade 1: narrowing of the articular cartilage, no erosion grade 2: acetabular bone erosi...

Intercoccygeal angle

Intercoccygeal angle measurement may be used to quantify the degree of anterior angulation of the coccyx. It was originally described on lateral sacrococcygeal radiographs but can also be measured on cross-sectional imaging in the sagittal plane 1. Measurement On a midline sagittal image, a s...

Funiculus (disambiguation)

The funiculus (plural: funiculi) is an anatomical term and means a cordlike structure. It may refer to: funiculus (medulla oblongata) funiculus (fourth ventricle) funiculus (male genitals) funiculus (spinal cord) funiculus (umbilicus) funiculus (wrist ligament) History and etymology The ...

Thumb hypoplasia

Thumb hypoplasia is a type of congenital hand abnormality and may be seen in isolation or with other congenital abnormalities (including other hand abnormalities, radial ray deficiency or other syndromes, e.g. Holt-Oram and Fanconi syndrome). Classification There are several types of thumb abn...

Pelvic phlebography

Pelvic phlebography or pelvic venography is an interventional procedure, in which the pelvic and gonadal veins are opacified to assess venous and collateral system anatomy for the diagnosis, treatment and pre-operative planning of pelvic vein pathology. This procedure is usually performed at th...

Compensated advanced chronic liver disease

Compensated advanced chronic liver disease (cACLD) is a term that was introduced at the Baveno VI concensus to denominate patients with chronic liver disease who are at risk of developing clinically significant portal hypertension based on liver stiffness values / hepatic elastography.

Cotrel-Dubousset Instrumentation

Cotrel-Dubousset Instrumentation is a scoliosis restorative method employed back in 1983. Principally this procedure is used in any situation requiring posterior spinal instrumentation with rigid fixation like fractures and retrolisthesis. Contrary to Harrington rods, this procedure is much bett...

Fetal urinary bladder

The fetal urinary bladder, also known as the bladder bubble, is visible as an anechoic cyst on ultrasound in most fetuses from 12-13 weeks of gestation 1. The size of the bladder is denoted by measuring the longitudinal bladder diameter from superiorly to inferiorly in the sagittal plane. Age-r...

Lateralised piston syndrome (stapes)

The lateralised piston syndrome is a one of the complications that may occur as a result of migration of a stapes prosthesis. It may be present in around 18% of stapes revision surgeries. It is characterised by lateral piston extrusion out of the oval window and is often associated with incus ne...

Paediatric femur (lateral view)

The lateral femur view for paediatrics is part of a standard series examining the femur in its entirety, including the hip and knee joint. Indications This view demonstrates the femur in an orthogonal position to the AP view. This allows assessment of suspected dislocations, fractures, localis...

Paediatric femur (AP view)

The anteroposterior femur view for paediatrics is part of a standard series examining the femur in its entirety, including the hip and knee joints. Indications This view demonstrates the paediatric femur in its natural anatomical position allowing for assessment of suspected dislocations, frac...

Femur series (paediatric)

The femur series for paediatrics is comprised of an anteroposterior (AP), and lateral radiograph. The series is utilised to assess for abnormalities pertaining to the shaft of the femur (often requested when fringe abnormality is seen on hip or knee radiographs). It is not an effective series to...

Unified classification system for periprosthetic fractures

The unified classification system (UCS) is used for periprosthetic fractures. The classification is proposed to standardise the classification of periprosthetic fractures and provide a guide to the management of these fractures regardless of the broken bone or the joint affected 1-4. The class...

Usual ductal hyperplasia

Usual ductal hyperplasia (also known as epithelial hyperplasia) is a benign proliferation of normal cells in breast ducts and lobules. Epidemiology The mean age of patients with epithelial hyperplasia is 54 years 1. Clinical presentation Epithelial hyperplasia is usually asymptomatic and fou...

Fetal breathing movements

Fetal breathing movements (FBM) are episodic rhythmic contractions of the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration. Fetal breathing may be noticed as early as 15 weeks of gestation. At 24 -28 weeks, the fetus breaths about 10-20% of the time, increasing to 30% at 30 weeks of pregnancy 1. Feta...

Paediatric knee (AP view)

The anteroposterior knee view for paediatrics is one of two views in order to examine the knee joint, patella, distal femur and proximal tibia and fibula. Depending on the child's age and the departmental protocol, additional views such as the skyline and intercondyler views may also be performe...

Anal sphincter injury

Anal sphincter injury (ASI) is a form of perineal injury that can involve internal or external anal sphincters and may extend to the anorectal mucosa in severe cases. This article is focusing on the most common type of ASI that is associated with vaginal delivery and represents third and fourth...

Prostatic stromal nodule

Prostatic stromal nodules are type of nodule that can arise from benign prostatic hyperplasia. They may comprise of immature mesenchymal, fibroblastic, fibromuscular and smooth muscular elements. Radiographic features MRI They are typically seen in the transitional zone or occasionally may pr...

Master knot of Henry intersection syndrome

The master knot of Henry intersection syndrome refers to the symptoms resulting from friction in the crossover area between the flexor hallucis longus (FHL) and the flexor digitorum longus (FDL) tendons 1. Epidemiology This syndrome is the most common aetiology of plantar mid-foot pain. The kn...

Laryngeal paraganglia

The laryngeal paraganglia are tiny specialised neuroendocrine tissues located within and near the larynx. Their function is uncertain but they may play a role in regulating blood flow and responding to changes in oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. Gross anatomy Although nomenclature is variable...

Aphaeresis

Aphaeresis is an extracorporeal procedure in which the main components of blood (red blood cells, plasma, and plasma proteins) are separated and removed from the body. It is used as therapeutic measure for certain conditions. Radiological implications It is one of the indications of placement ...

Drug-induced severe cutaneous adverse reactions

Several drug-induced severe cutaneous adverse reactions (SCAR) are described: acute generalised exanthematous pustulosis (AGEP) drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS) syndrome epidermal necrolysis this is a spectrum which includes Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS) and tox...

Pyelolithiasis

Pyelolithiasis is calculus or calculi located centrally within the renal pelvis. Terminology Other terminologies that may be used interchangeably with pyelolithiasis to refer to these calculi include renal stones, urolithiasis, and nephrolithiasis. A calculus located within the renal calyx can...

Renal autotransplant

A renal autotransplant is an uncommon procedure in which a kidney is resected from its native site and implanted in a new location. Indications This infrequently performed procedure is most commonly done for 1,3: loin pain haematuria syndrome ureteric stricture vascular disease ...

Renal double curve catheter

The renal double curve catheter is an angiographic selective access catheter, designed for catheterisation and subselection of acutely originating renal arteries 1 through a femoral approach, in order to secure access, advance, exchange devices, or deliver contrast. It can also be used for the ...

Para-articular chondroma

Para-articular chondromas, also known as intracapsular chondromas, are one of the three variants of extraskeletal chondromas, the other two being synovial chondromatosis and soft tissue chondroma. These tumours arise from chondroid metaplasia of the joint capsule 1. Epidemiology These tumours ...

Myoepithelial carcinoma of the salivary glands

Myoepithelial carcinomas, also known as malignant myoepitheliomas, are rare malignant salivary gland tumours. Myoepithelial carcinoma makes up <2% of all salivary gland malignancies 1,3. Epidemiology Myoepithelial carcinoma affects males and females at an equal rate. The mean age at presenta...

TRUFI sequence

The TRUFI sequence which is an abbreviation for "True Fast Imaging with Steady-State Free Precession" is a form of MRI pulse sequence. It is thought to represent a form of gradient echo seqeunce. Blood vessels and fluid filled spaces in the body may look bright on this sequence. See also MRI ...

Neuronal nuclear antigen (NeuN)

Neuronal nuclear antigen (NeuN) is a protein expressed in mature (post-mitotic) neurones and is commonly used as an immunohistochemical target to identify neuronal differentiation (e.g. in ganglioglioma and gangliocytomas). It is primarily expressed in the nuclei of neurones with less pronounc...

Kindling effect

The kindling effect is a neurological phenomenon encountered experimentally in animal models and is thought to play an important role in the development of epilepsy in humans 1,2. The repeated application of sub-threshold electrical or chemical stimulations to specific brain regions results in ...

Mondor disease (penis)

Penile Mondor disease is a benign self-limiting condition of the penis characterised by thrombophlebitis of the superficial dorsal vein of the penis or one of its tributaries. Mondor disease also occurs in the breast and axilla. Epidemiology It usually occurs in sexually active young adults. ...

Orbital blastomycosis

Orbital blastomycosis, less commonly known as Gilchrist disease, is an orbital infection from the fungus Blastomyces dermatidis. Blastomycosis is typically acquired via inhalation of conidia (spores). Blastomycosis is a systemic pyogranulomatous infection. Epidemiology Even in endemic areas, b...

Berrettini anastomosis

Berrettini anastomosis is a common sensory interneural communication between the ulnar nerve and the median nerve in the palmar surface of the hand. Gross anatomy The Berrettini anastomosis is a purely sensory anastomosis between the common palmar digital nerves that arise from the median and ...

Marinacci anastomosis

Marinacci anastomosis, also known as reverse Martin-Gruber anastomosis, describes a rare interneural communication between the ulnar nerve and the median nerve in the distal forearm. Gross anatomy Most commonly, motor fibres from the ulnar nerve cross to join the median nerve in the distal for...

Grocott-Gomori’s Methenamine Silver Stain

Grocott’s methenamine silver (GMS) stain is a stain frequently used to screen histologic and microbiologic specimens for fungal organisms. The procedure relies on the presence of polysaccharides along the fungal cell wall. During the staining process, chromic acid is first applied to the speci...

Yttrium-90 ibritumomab tiuxetan

Yttrium-90 ibritumomab tiuxetan, also known by the trade name Zevalin (Acrotech Biopharma LLC, USA), is a theranostic radiopharmaceutical approved for the treatment of patients with relapsed or refractory low grade or follicular non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). More specifically, it is a radioimmunot...

Zone classification of extensor tendon injury

The zone classification of extensor tendon injuries divides injuries into zones based on anatomical location. The zone classification is proposed to guide the management of these injuries and predict possible outcomes. Classification Flexor tendon injuries were initially classified into eight...

Small bowel diaphragm disease

Small bowel diaphragm disease is a rare clinical entity involving diaphragm-like septa causing small bowel lumen narrowing. Epidemiology Small bowel diaphragm disease is a relatively rare disease, with limited reported literature on its incidence and prevalence 1. Risk factors The following ...

Spatial resolution (gamma camera)

Spatial resolution is the ability of a gamma camera to differentiate two close radioactive sources. It takes "full width at half maximum" (FWHM) of the radioactivity count rate from a point source or a line source. FWHM in this case is defined as possible positions of the source when the count r...

Pulmonary vein isolation ablation

Pulmonary vein isolation (PVI) ablation is a minimally invasive procedure that is used to treat atrial fibrillation. It either uses hot or cold substances to create scar tissue around the pulmonary ostial regions which in turn disrupt abnormal electrical signals that cause atrial fibrillation. ...

Film processing

Film processing is a procedure whereby a latent image on a film is processed to become a visible radiograph. It consists of four major steps namely: development, fixing, washing, and drying. Process Development Developer solution (e.g. hydroquinone or phenidone) is used to reduce more silver ...

Triquetrocapitate ligament

The triquetrocapitate ligament is one of the palmar intrinsic midcarpal ligaments 1. Along with the triquetrohamate ligament this ligament forms the triquetrohamocapitate ligament, which forms the ulnar limb of the arcuate ligament of the wrist 1,2. It is often contiguous with the ulnocapitate l...

Trapeziotrapezoid ligament

The trapeziotrapezoid ligament is one of the three distal interosseous ligaments of the wrist 1,2. It acts along with the capitotrapezoid and capitohamate ligaments to stabilise the distal carpal row and keep them moving as a single unit 1,2. Gross anatomy Each of the distal interosseous ligam...

Sentence case

Sentence case is a writing style where only the first letter of the first word in a sentence is capitalised, along with any proper nouns (names of people, places, etc.). Read more about capitalisation. Here's a simple guide on how to use sentence case in Radiopaedia: Sentence structure Begin...

Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome

Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome (RADS) is an airway inflammatory condition often defined as the sudden onset of asthma-like symptoms following high-level exposure to an agent such as corrosive gas, vapour, or fumes. Some publications suggest this a subset or variant of asthma 2-3. Patient...

Flexor carpi radialis tendinopathy

Flexor carpi radialis (FCR) tendinopathy presents with pain in the volar radial wrist. It usually develops due to chronic overuse, particularly in areas of the tendon that are exposed to rough surfaces (e.g. osteophytes). Epidemiology Flexor carpi radialis tendinopathy is a rare condition that...

Riche-Cannieu anastomosis

Riche-Cannieu anastomosis describes a common interneural communication between the median nerve and the ulnar nerve in the hand. Gross anatomy Generally, this anastomosis is specifically between the deep palmar branch of the ulnar nerve and the recurrent branch median nerve, although many vari...

Bone grafting of reverse Hill-Sachs defects

Bone grafting of reverse Hill-Sachs defect is the surgical restoration of the humeral head due to compromised shoulder stability from large defects, which in patients without significant glenoid bone loss who have good bone stock, preserved articular cartilage, and humeral head defect between 20...

HIV-associated CD8+ encephalitis

HIV-associated CD8+ encephalitis, or simply CD8+ encephalitis, is an inflammatory encephalopathy caused by perivascular and intraparenchymal CD8+ T cell infiltration, occurring in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, despite often having adequate viral suppression. It is a...

Episcleritis

Episcleritis describes inflammation of the thin outer layer of the sclera. The episcleral layer is present in between the conjunctiva and sclera and can become acutely inflamed unilaterally or bilaterally. Clinical presentation Clinically, patients may present with: red eye(s) ocular discomf...

Bloomy rind sign (leptomeningeal metastases)

The bloomy rind sign is a radiological sign appreciated on MRI brain that is rarely but characteristically described in patients with leptomeningeal metastases (leptomeningeal carcinomatosis). The sign describes the appearance of a curvilinear T2/FLAIR hyperintensity on the brainstem surface, t...

Flexor carpi radialis tendon tunnel

The flexor carpi radialis tendon tunnel is a fibro-osseous canal in the anterior/volar aspect of the wrist. The tendon of the flexor carpi radialis (FCR) muscle occupies approximately 90% of the available space in the tunnel. Gross anatomy The FCR tendon travels above the scaphoid and through ...

Botulism

Botulism is a neuroparalytic syndrome manifesting as diffuse generalised flaccid paralysis caused by exposure to botulinum neurotoxin. It can be potentially fatal. Botulinum toxin is the deadliest toxin due to high lethality and potency. The lethal dose (LD 50) is 1-3 ng of toxin per 1 kg of bo...

Taphonomy

Taphonomy is the study of death, decay and fossilization. A subdiscipline of paleontology essentially examining the train of events and processes of fossilization. It includes the study of soft tissue decay/degradation, skeletal separation and chemical changes post burial. Whilst encompassing ...

Corticosteroids

Corticosteroids are drugs/medications widely used in several areas of medicine. They are also known as glucocorticoids, cortisone and colloquially steroids (note: do not mix up with anabolic steroids). They are synthetic analogues of naturally occurring endogenous steroids produced by the adren...

Alice in Wonderland syndrome

Alice in Wonderland syndrome, also known as Todd syndrome, is a rare condition affecting the sensory inputs in the brain. Epidemiology Alice in Wonderland syndrome most common in children with over two-third of cases occurring in the paediatric demographic 1. Clinical presentation Alice in W...

Hypermetropia

Hypermetropia, also known as long-sightedness or hyperopia, is a refractive disorder. Though it can happen in any age group, it usually starts from mid-late adulthood. Clinical presentation In this condition, distant objects are seen better than close objects. Pathology The blurriness of nea...

12q14 microdeletion syndrome

12q14 microdeletion syndrome or osteopoikilosis-short stature-intellectual disability syndrome is caused by heterozygous deletion at the region of 12q14. The microdeletion affects the LEMD3 gene which has already been implicated in osteopoikilosis. Epidemiology Prevalence is <1 in 1 million li...

Lidocaine

Lidocaine, also known as lignocaine or its tradename Xylocaine, is a very commonly used amino amide local anaesthetic in interventional radiology. It also has a wide range of medical applications. In practice, it is found in concentrations of 1%, 2% or as a combination with adrenaline. Medical ...

Nitrous oxide

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is an odourless and colorless gas that can cause a state of euphoria. Nitrous oxide is the least powerful of the inhalational anaesthetic agents, needing up to 104% concentration to reach 1 minimum alveolar concentration (MAC). Thus, it is usually admixed with a more volatil...

Dyspepsia

Dyspepsia is a group of upper abdominal gastrointestinal symptoms often described as a burning sensation, discomfort, nausea and bloating, especially after meals. Epidemiology Dyspepsia is a common condition affecting up to 25% of the population in the United States. Clinical presentation bl...

H sign (spinal cord)

The H sign is a radiological sign appreciated on MRI spine that is classically described in patients with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease (MOGAD). The sign describes the involvement of spinal cord grey matter as seen on axial T2 sequences in patients with myelit...

Acrodysotosis

Acrodysotosis, also known as Arkless-Graham syndrome, Maroteaux-Malamut syndrome or acrodysplasia, is a rare genetic disorder affecting bone growth. Epidemiology The true incidence is not known. There is no known gender predilection. The condition is often detected in early childhood. Clinica...

Helicobacter pylori

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a gram-negative spiral flagellate microaerophilic bacterium found in the human gastric mucosa 1. It is classified as a Group I carcinogen and is considered necessary but insufficient alone to cause gastric adenocarcinoma. More often than not, it results in chro...

Radium-223 dichloride

Radium-223 dichloride, trade name Xofigo, is a radiopharmaceutical approved for the treatment of patients with symptomatic bone metastases and no visceral disease from prostate cancer resistant to anti androgen therapy. The molecule mimics calcium and forms a complex with hydroxyapatite at sites...

Crural cisterns

Crural cisterns, also known as cisterna cruralis, are paired cerebrospinal fluid-filled subarachnoid cisterns located at the level of the cerebral peduncles between the uncus and the optic tract 1. Boundaries The boundaries of the crural cisterns are 2: ventral: communicates with the oculomot...

Subaponeurotic fluid collection

Subaponeurotic fluid collections are a rare cause of head swelling in young neonates. They are thought to be due to birth trauma from assisted delivery, e.g. prolonged assisted delivery or ventouse delivery, with associated microfistula development that leads to CSF leakage. Clinical presentati...

Steatotic liver disease

Steatotic liver disease includes a number of separate entities: Metabolic dysfunction associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) formerly known as Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) Metabolic alcoholic liver disease (MetALD) MASLD + alcohol consumption Alcohol-associated liver diseas...

Notch width index

The notch width index (NWI) is a measurement that has been proposed as a possible indicator of the risk of anterior cruciate ligament injuries 5. Measurement The NWI is assessed on the tunnel view radiograph of the knee as the ratio between the width of the intercondylar notch and the width of...

Trident sign (neurosarcoidosis)

The trident sign is a radiological (MRI) sign described in spinal cord neurosarcoidosis. The sign is formed by the axial appearance of a longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis due to spinal cord neurosarcoidosis, whereby on a T1 post-contrast (gadolinium) MRI sequence, there is central ca...

Apnoea-hypopnea index

The apnoea-hypopnea index (AHI) is a clinical tool to assess severity of obstructive sleep apnoea. It is taken as the combined average number of apneoas and hypopnoeas occurring per hour of sleep. According to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) it is categorised into mild (5-15 even...

Pancreaticoduodenal arcade

The pancreaticoduodenal arcade refers to an arterial network that links the blood flow of the coeliac artery and superior mesenteric artery via the superior and inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries. Gross anatomy Origin The pancreaticoduodenal arcades originate from the superior pancreaticod...

Pancake sign

The pancake sign represents flat, tranverse gadolinium enhancement at the midpoint of a hyperintense, spindle-shaped T2 signal and is seen on sagittal and axial MR imaging 1. The axial corollary is formed by circumferential enhancement with sparing the spinal gray matter 2. Of note, the enhancem...

Capitohamate ligament

The capitohamate ligament is one of the three distal interosseous ligaments of the wrist 1,2. It acts along with capitotrapezoid and trapeziotrapezoid ligaments to stabilise the distal row of carpals and keep them moving as a single unit 1,2. Gross anatomy Each of the distal interosseous ligam...

Superior cerebellar cistern

The superior cerebellar cistern is a cerebrospinal fluid-filled subarachnoid cistern located at the level of the superior surface of the cerebellar vermis. Boundaries The boundaries of the superior cerebellar cistern are 1–3: ventral: communicates with the quadrigeminal cistern dorsal: commu...

Cervicofacial actinomycosis

Cervicofacial actinomycosis is the most frequent manifestation of Actinomyces infection 1,2. Epidemiology Although the prevalence of cervicofacial actinomycosis cases varies with geographical regions, the disease has male gender predilection. Risk factors including poor oral hygiene, oral trau...

Male pelvic ultrasound (technique)

The male pelvic ultrasound is a noninvasive, painless and effective diagnostic imaging technique used for evaluating and examining the pelvic region, specifically the lower abdomen, bladder and prostate gland in males. Indications Some common indications for male pelvic ultrasound are 1,2: ur...

Posterior communicating artery hypoplasia

Posterior communicating artery hypoplasia refers to the absence of the posterior communicating artery, a blood vessel that connects the posterior cerebral artery with the internal carotid artery, thus acting as a connection between the anterior and posterior portions of the circle of willis. I...

Capitotrapezoid ligament

The capitotrapezoid ligament (or trapezocapitate ligament) is one of the three distal interosseous ligaments of the wrist 1,2. It acts along with the capitohamate and trapeziotrapezoid ligaments to stabilise the distal row of carpals and keep them moving as a single unit 1,2. Gross anatomy Eac...

Sinonasal seromucinous hamartoma

Sinonasal seromucinous hamartomas (SSH) are benign sinonasal neoplasms. Epidemiology Sinonasal seromucinous hamartomas are rare, with approximately 25 cases reported since 1974 1. They are more common in middle-aged adults with a mean in the 6th decade and a slight female predilection (1.5:1) ...

Triquetrohamate ligament

The triquetrohamate ligament is one of the palmar intrinsic midcarpal ligaments, with a variable presence of a dorsal component of the ligament 1. Its function is to resist flexion between the triquetrum and the hamate 1. Together with the triquetrocapitate ligament, it forms the triquetrohamoca...

Somite

Somites, also known as metameres, are paired populations of cells that arise on either side of the neural tube in the developing embryo and set out a plan for the compartmentalised development of the body 1-3. Immature somites are multipotent and can differentiate into many tissues including de...

Arcuate fasciculus

The arcuate fasciculus (AF) has been classically described as a connection between Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area 1. However, the location and connectivity of the fibres of the AF is variable. The AF is composed of a direct and indirect component 2. Anatomy Direct Component The direct compo...

Scaphocapitate ligament

The scaphocapitate ligament is one of the palmar intrinsic midcarpal ligaments. It, along with the scaphotrapeziotrapezoid ligament, constitutes the scaphotrapeziotrapezoid ligament complex which stabilises the triscaphe joint 1. It also forms the radial limb of the arcuate ligament of the wrist...

CT gastrointenstinal bleed (protocol)

A CT gastro-intestinal bleed protocol utilises a multiphasic technique to detect active gastrointestinal bleeding (as well as other potential non-bleeding bowel disease 1. Note: This article is a general guideline for evaluating CT gastrointestinal bleeds. Protocol factors are variable as they...

Long term epilepsy associated tumours

Long-term epilepsy-associated tumours (LEATs) is a pragmatic grouping of varied primary brain tumours that share a number of features including slow indolent growth rate, localisation to the cortex and a predilection for the temporal lobe. These characteristics combine to make them a common cau...

Isomorphic diffuse glioma

Isomorphic diffuse glioma is a recently identified indolent low-grade diffuse glioma, often considered one of the long-term epilepsy-associated tumours (LEATs), closely related to paediatric diffuse astrocytoma MYB or MYBL1 altered but demonstrating distinct DNA-methylation profile 1. It is crit...

Lateral pontomedullary membranes

The lateral pontomedullary membranes are arachnoid membranes located anterolateral to the brainstem at the pontomedullary junction, separating the cerebellopontine cisterns superiorly from the cerebellomedullary cisterns inferiorly 1–3. Cadaveric studies indicate the lateral pontomedullary membr...

Fasciola cinerea

The fasciola cinerea is located in the mesial temporal lobe 1,2. The fasciola cinerea is a posterior grey matter continuation of the margo denticularis and forms part of the hippocampal formation 3–5. The fasciolar cinerea demonstrates robust interconnection and receives input from the lateral ...

Inner tube sign (ascariasis)

The inner tube sign on ultrasonography refers to two echogenic lines that run along the centre of the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides, parallelling its two outer echogenic walls, depicting its alimentary system. As a result, the longitudinal section of the worm on the ultrasound creates the disti...

Lederer-Brill disease

Lederer-Brill disease is an autoimmune haemolytic anaemia with very variable clinical features 1. Clinical presentation It usually occurs in children with a recent history of infection. Symptoms and signs include 1: massive haemolysis resulting in anaemia, jaundice, and haemoglobinuria feve...

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