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Lipomatous metaplasia of the myocardium

Lipomatous metaplasia of the myocardium is a phenomenon where there is fat deposition within the myocardium. It is often seen following a myocardial infarction but can also rarely been seen in conditions such as arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia. Pathology The exact etiology of lipoma...

Uhl anomaly

Uhl anomaly is an unusual cardiac disorder which affects the right ventricle where there is an almost complete absence of right ventricular myocardium, normal tricuspid valve, and preserved septal and left ventricular myocardium. Clinical presentation Presentation usually occurs in the neonata...

Thallium-201 scintigraphy

Thallium-201 (Tl-201) is a radiopharmaceutical used for scintigraphy, primarily of the myocardium. The element thallium is treated by the body as an analog of potassium; it is produced in a cyclotron by bombarding thallium-203 with protons. Characteristics thallium is a monovalent cation usua...

Tricuspid valve regurgitation

Tricuspid valve regurgitation (TR), also known as tricuspid valve insufficiency or tricuspid valve incompetence (TI), is a valvulopathy that describes leaking of the tricuspid valve (TV) during systole that causes blood to flow in the reverse direction from the right ventricle (RV) into the righ...

Interventricular septal aneurysm

Interventricular septal aneurysm is different from ventricular aneurysm which usually occurs in the cardiac apex. It is defined as a bowing of the interventricular septum of more than 15 mm on either side in adults and 5 mm in children during normal cardiac motion. It may involve either the memb...

Interatrial septal aneurysm

Interatrial septal aneurysm or atrial septal aneurysm (ASA) is defined as an abnormal protrusion of the interatrial septum. The exact length of the protrusion that defines an interatrial septal aneurysm varies in the literature, ranging from >11 mm to >15 mm beyond normal excursion in adults 4,5...

Accessory left atrial appendage

An accessory left atrial appendage is a frequent fortuitous finding in cardiac imaging, encountered in ~10% of patients. They are more often seen as a small diverticular structure projecting from the right upper side of the left atrial wall. Differential diagnosis it must not be confused with ...

Pericardial tumors

There are a number of tumors that can involve the pericardium. They include primary pericardial tumors primary pericardial mesothelioma pericardial sarcoma(s) pericardial liposarcoma pericardial fibrosarcoma pericardial fibroma primary pericardial lymphoma pericardial hemangioma pericar...

Hibernating myocardium

Hibernating myocardium is myocardial tissue that has reduced contractility due to poor perfusion but remains viable. In ischemic heart disease, evaluating myocardial viability is important because hibernating myocardium can recover function after revascularization. Pathology Hibernating myoca...

Pericardial agenesis

Pericardial agenesis is a rare condition where there is the absence of the pericardium to varying degrees. If it is only a small portion of the pericardium that is absent it is known as a pericardial defect. Epidemiology According to a surgical and pathological series, the prevalence (inclusiv...

Diastolic pseudogating

Diastolic pseudogating appears as periodic bright and dark signal in arteries such as the aorta as one progresses through a series of images. Synchronisation of the cardiac cycle and the pulse sequence results in high signal in the artery during diastole when blood is relatively stationary and l...

Left main coronary artery

The left main coronary artery (LMCA) or left coronary artery (LCA) is one of the two main coronary arteries that supply the heart with oxygenated blood. Gross anatomy Origin The left main coronary artery is a branch of the ascending aorta, with its normal origin in the left aortic sinus, just...

Traumatic aortic injury in the exam

Getting a film with traumatic aortic injury in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. This is one of the cases you should look and not speak for 10 seconds as there tends to be a lot of findings on the film of patients with a traumatic aortic injury. Description...

Passive hepatic congestion

Passive hepatic congestion, also known as congested liver in cardiac disease, describes the stasis of blood in the hepatic parenchyma, due to impaired hepatic venous drainage, which leads to the dilation of central hepatic veins and hepatomegaly. Passive hepatic congestion is a well-studied re...

Intra-aortic balloon pump

Intra-aortic balloon pumps (IABP) are used in the intensive care setting to provide hemodynamic assistance to patients in cardiogenic shock. Function and physiology The device is comprised of a catheter introduced via a femoral artery sheath, which extends retrogradely to the proximal descendi...

Pericardial mesothelioma

Pericardial mesothelioma refers to mesothelioma arising primarily from the pericardium. Epidemiology They are rare and are only thought to account for ~0.7% of all malignant mesotheliomas. There is male to female predominance of approximately 3:1. Clinical presentation The presentation of p...

Aortic isthmus

The aortic isthmus is the part of the aorta just distal to the origin of the left subclavian artery at the site of the ductus arteriosus. This portion of the aorta is partly constricted in the fetus because of the lack of flow within the aortic sac and ascending aorta. It marks the partial sepa...

Systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex autoimmune disease with multisystem involvement. Although abnormalities in almost every aspect of the immune system have been found, the key defect is thought to result from a loss of self-tolerance to autoantigens. Epidemiology There is a strong...

Left ventricular aneurysm

Left ventricular aneurysms are discrete, dyskinetic areas of the left ventricular wall with a broad neck (as opposed to left ventricular pseudoaneurysms), thus often termed true aneurysms. Epidemiology True left ventricular aneurysms develop in less than 5% of all patients with ST-elevation my...

Polysplenia syndrome

Polysplenia syndrome, also known as left isomerism, is a type of heterotaxy syndrome where there are multiple spleens congenitally as part of left-sided isomerism. Epidemiology Polysplenia is seen predominantly in female patients. It is usually diagnosed in childhood or adulthood, later than a...

Non-compaction of the left ventricle

Non-compaction of the left ventricle, also known as spongiform cardiomyopathy or left ventricular non-compaction (LVNC) is a phenotype of hypertrophic ventricular trabeculations and deep interventricular recesses. It has been hypothesized to result from the arrest of normal myocardial compaction...

Partial anomalous pulmonary venous return

Partial anomalous pulmonary venous return (PAPVR), also known as partial anomalous pulmonary venous connection (PAPVC), is a rare congenital cardiovascular condition in which some of the pulmonary veins, but not all, drain into the systemic circulation rather than in the left atrium. Epidemiolo...

Finger clubbing

Finger clubbing, also called "drumstick fingers" or Hippocratic fingers, is a common clinical sign mainly seen in patients with heart or lung disease. The term is used to describe an enlargement of the distal phalanges of the fingers, giving them a drumstick or club-like appearance. Clinical p...

Double density sign (left atrium)

The double-density sign, also known as the double right heart border, is seen on frontal chest radiographs in the presence of left atrial enlargement, and occurs when the right side of the left atrium extends behind the right cardiac shadow, indenting the adjacent lung and forming its own distin...

Walking man sign (chest x-ray)

The walking man sign is seen on a lateral chest radiograph and is a sign of left atrial enlargement. It results from posterior displacement of the left main bronchus such that it no longer overlaps the right bronchus. The left and right bronchus thus appear as an inverted 'V', mimicking the legs...

Atrial escape

Atrial escape refers to a chest x-ray sign of massive left atrial enlargement and is an exaggerated version of the double density sign. Normally, the right border of the left atrium is not visible. As it enlarges it forms a distinct border projecting through the right heart shadow, medial to ...

Mitral valve regurgitation

Mitral valve regurgitation, also known as mitral valve insufficiency or mitral valve incompetence, is a valvulopathy that describes leaking of the mitral valve during systole that causes blood to flow in the reverse direction from the left ventricle into the left atrium. Epidemiology According...

Ascending aortic aneurysm

Ascending aortic aneurysms are the most common subtype of thoracic aortic aneurysms and may be true or false aneurysms. Epidemiology Ascending aortic aneurysms represent 60% of thoracic aortic aneurysms. Clinical presentation Typically ascending aortic aneurysms are an incidental finding a...

Chagas disease

Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis (plural: trypanosomiases), is a tropical parasitic infection with a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations since it can virtually affect any organ, but there are characteristic radiological features. Epidemiology Chagas disease is endemi...

Naclerio V sign

The Naclerio V sign is a sign described on the plain film in patients with a pneumomediastinum occurring often secondary to an esophageal rupture. It is seen as a V-shaped air collection. One limb of the V is produced by mediastinal gas outlining the left lower lateral mediastinal border. The ...

Idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome

Idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome (IHES) is a leukoproliferative disorder and refers to a situation when there is an unexplained prolonged eosinophilia with associated organ system dysfunction. Pathology Individuals have prolonged raised total leukocyte counts with raised eosinophil count...

Speckle tracking echocardiography

Speckle tracking echocardiography describes the semi-automated analysis of grey scale (B-mode) echocardiographic studies in which the spatial translocation of derived functional units (speckles) allows quantitative analysis of myocardial function. Speckle tracking constitutes a subset of deform...

Mitral valve stenosis

Mitral valve stenosis is a valvulopathy that describes narrowing of the opening of the mitral valve between the left ventricle and the left atrium. Epidemiology Mitral stenosis is seen more commonly in women and in countries, generally developing nations, where rheumatic fever is common 1. Cl...

Upper lobe pulmonary venous diversion

Upper lobe pulmonary venous diversion (also described as cephalisation of the pulmonary veins) reflects elevation of left atrial pressure and is an early sign of pulmonary edema. Clinical presentation The normal left atrial pressure is 5-10 mmHg. An elevation of left atrial pressure to 10-15 m...

Left ventricular assist device (Doppler ultrasound)

In patients with a left ventricular assist device (LVAD), spectral Doppler waveforms are altered due to continuous flow provided by the pump in the device: waveforms are monophasic with a constant antegrade flow and no flow below the baseline the waveform is typically parvus-tardus with a slow...

Left ventricular assist device

Left ventricular assist devices (LVAD) are mechanical circulatory support device that are surgically implanted to aid pumping blood in patients with severe refractory cardiac failure. It may be used as a bridge to cardiac transplantation, or as destination therapy in patients who are not a trans...

Parachute mitral valve

A parachute mitral valve is a valvular congenital abnormality usually identified in infants or young children, though it can present later, in adulthood. Pathology Parachute mitral valves occur when all the chordae tendineae are attached to a single papillary muscle origin. Unlike the normal s...

Aortic valve stenosis

Aortic valve stenosis is the most common valvulopathy and describes narrowing of the opening of the aortic valve between the aorta and the left ventricle. Epidemiology Aortic stenosis is the most common valvulopathy, present in up to one-quarter of all patients with chronic valvular heart dise...

MitraClip device

A MitraClip is a device for percutaneous mitral valve repair. It is a percutaneous edge-to-edge attachment system that mimics the surgical procedure. This technique creates a tissue bridge between the anterior and posterior leaflets, employing one clip deployed through transseptal catheterizatio...

Quadricuspid aortic valve

Quadricuspid aortic valve (QAV) is a rare cardiac valvular anomaly where the aortic valve has four cusps, instead of the usual three. Epidemiology The estimated incidence on necropsy at ~1 in 8,000. While the incidence of QAV on 2D echocardiography has been reported to range between 0.01-0.04%...

Cardiac venous malformations

Cardiac venous malformations (also known as cardiac hemangiomas) consists of a slow flow venous malformation and is composed of numerous non-neoplastic endothelial-lined thin-walled channels with interspersed fat and fibrous septae. Terminology It is important to note that according to newer n...

Bicuspid aortic valve

Bicuspid aortic valve (BAV) refers to a spectrum of deformed aortic valves with two functional leaflets or cusps which are often unequal in size. They are most often congenital while an acquired bicuspid valve occurs when there is fibrous fusion between the right and left cusps of a pre-existin...

Pericardium

The pericardium is a conical, flask-like, fibroserous sac which contains the heart and the roots of the great vessels and defines the middle mediastinum. Gross anatomy The pericardium is made of two sacs in one. The outer sac is the fibrous pericardium and the inner sac is the double-layered ...

Medical devices in the thorax

Medical devices in the thorax are regularly observed by radiologists when reviewing radiographs and CT scans. Extrathoracic devices tubing, clamps, syringes, scissors, lying on or under the patient rubber sheets, foam mattresses, clothing, hair braids, nipple piercings, etc., may also be visi...

Secondary malignant cardiac tumor

Secondary malignant cardiac tumors or cardiac metastases refer to a secondary malignant tumor involving any structural component of the heart. It represents spread of a primary neoplasm via lymphatic, hematogenous, or endovascular pathways, or potentially by direct extension from an adjacent tis...

Pulmonary edema

Pulmonary edema is a broad descriptive term and is usually defined as an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the extravascular compartments of the lung 1. Clinical presentation The clinical presentation of pulmonary edema includes: acute breathlessness orthopnea paroxysmal nocturnal dy...

Coronary artery bypass graft

A coronary artery bypass graft (CABG or CAG) is placed during a surgical procedure to increase blood flow to the myocardium due to coronary stenoses, usually caused by coronary artery disease. Arteries or veins can be grafted during this procedure. Long term outcome of coronary artery bypass gr...

Fetal atrial fibrillation

Fetal atrial fibrillation is a type of fetal tachyarrhythmia and usually has an atrial rate of 400 beats per minute and a completely irregular ventricular rhythm. Radiographic features Antenatal ultrasound - echocardiography The atrial contractions are usually too faint to be detected by M M...

Barth syndrome

Barth syndrome (BTHS), also known as 3-methylglutaconic aciduria type II, is an extremely rare X-linked multisystem disorder that is usually diagnosed in infancy. Epidemiology Barth syndrome has an estimated prevalence of 1 in 300,000-400,000 live births. Clinical presentation It is characte...

Fetal right ventricular enlargement

Fetal right ventricular (RV) enlargement is an infrequently encountered situation in antenatal imaging. Pathology The right ventricle is the dominant ventricle during in utero development. Right ventricular enlargement can occur with a number of cardiac as well as non-cardiac anomalies. cardi...

Conotruncal cardiac anomalies

Conotruncal heart defects are a group of congenital cardiovascular anomalies involving the outflow tracts and great vessels. They are a leading cause of symptomatic cyanotic cardiac disease diagnosed in utero. Epidemiology They may account for up to a fifth of all congenital cardiac anomalies ...

Four chamber cardiac view (fetal)

The four chamber cardiac view is an important and routinely performed view in both fetal echocardiography as well as on a standard second trimester anatomy scan. Detectable pathology The four chamber view can only detect some of the congenital cardiac anomalies (~64% according to one study 2) ...

Fetal cardiac tumors

Fetal cardiac tumors refer to primary cardiac tumors that can present in the in utero population. Epidemiology Fetal cardiac tumors are rare; the prevalence, reported from autopsy studies of patients of all ages, varies from 0.0017-0.28 % 2. Pathology Known cardiac tumor types that present ...

Fetal sinus bradycardia

Fetal sinus bradycardia is a subtype of fetal bradycardia where the fetal heart rate is abnormally slow (<100 bpm) but runs at the regular rate with sinus rhythm. Pathology Associations congenital long QT syndrome 1 maternal anti Ro antibodies 2-3

Tc-99m sestamibi

Tc-99m sestamibi (sestamibi is a shortening of sesta-methoxyisobutylisonitrile) is one of the technetium radiopharmaceuticals. Characteristics photon energy: 140 KeV physical half-life: 6 hours lipophilic cation normal distribution: thyroid, parathyroid, heart (myocardium) e...

Fetal pericardial teratoma

Fetal pericardial teratomas are rare pericardial teratomas that present in utero. They are an uncommon primary cardiac tumor occurring in a fetus. Pathology It is a type of germ cell tumor and arises from pluripotent cells derived from all three germinal layers. In contrast to ovarian teratoma...

Fetal premature ventricular contractions

Fetal premature ventricular contractions (FPVC) are a type ectopic ventricular contractions detected in utero. They are a type of extrasystoles. Premature ventricular contractions are often followed by a compensatory pause due to the refractory state of the conduction system; the next conducted...

Blocked premature atrial contractions

Blocked premature atrial contractions (BPACs) are considered a type cardiac bradyarrhythmia and if occurring in utero is classified under a fetal bradyarrhythmia. Pathology It is seen when a premature atrial contraction occurs very early on and consequently, it is not conducted into the ventri...

Fetal cardiothoracic circumference ratio

Fetal cardiothoracic (C/T) circumference ratio is a parameter that can be used in the assessment of fetal cardiac and thoracic/chest wall anomalies. It is the ratio of the cardiac circumference to the thoracic circumference and may be easily measured on fetal ultrasound/echocardiography. Radio...

Fetal cardiomegaly

Fetal cardiomegaly (FC) refers to an enlarged fetal heart. It is variably defined with some sources stating the cut-off as a fetal cardio-thoracic circumference above two standard deviations 7. Pathology It can arise from a number of situations: congenital cardiac anomalies: particularly tr...

Carotid pacemaker

Carotid pacemakers, also known as implantable carotid sinus stimulators, are devices that deliver activation energy, via carotid leads, to the carotid baroreceptors. This is sometimes offered for drug-resistant hypertension. The baroreceptors send signals to the brain and the signals are interpr...

Dextrocardia

Dextrocardia is a congenital cardiac malposition in which the heart is situated on the right side of the body (dextroversion) with the cardiac apex pointing to the right. Terminology Dextrocardia merely refers to the laterality of the heart, it says nothing about the orientation of the patient...

Fetal premature atrial contractions

Fetal premature atrial contractions are a type of extrasystoles that can be occasionally detected in fetal heart monitoring. They along with fetal premature ventricular contractions (PVC's) account for the majority of in utero rhythm disturbances. Terminology Premature atrial contractions may ...

Fetal complete atrioventricular block

Fetal congenital complete heart block (CAVB) is a rare cardiac conduction abnormality that is associated with high morbidity and mortality. It is considered the commonest of fetal bradyarrhymias. Epidemiology The estimated prevalence of complete heart block in newborns is at ~1 in 20,000. Pat...

Myocardial infarction

Myocardial infarction (MI), colloquially known as a heart attack, an acute coronary syndrome, results from interruption of myocardial blood flow and resultant ischemia and is a leading cause of death worldwide. Epidemiology Risk factors male > females age >45 years for males >55 years for...

PET-CT indications

PET-CT is a combination of cross-sectional anatomic information provided by CT and the metabolic information provided by positron emission tomography (PET). PET is most commonly performed with 2-[F-18]fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG). Fluorine-18 (F-18) is an unstable radioisotope and has a half-...

Fetal bradyarrhythmia

Fetal bradyarrhythmias refer to an abnormally low fetal heart rate (less than 100-110 beats per minute 3,7) as well as being irregular, i.e. irregular fetal bradycardia. Epidemiology Associations congenital cardiac anomalies: may be present in 50-60% of cases 2,3 maternal connective tissue d...

Fetal atrial flutter

Fetal atrial flutter is the second most common fetal tachyarrhythmia and can account for up to 30% of such cases 1,2. Clinical presentation As with other tachyarrhythmias, it is often detected in the 3rd trimester. Pathology It has a typical atrial rate of 300-600 beats per minute (bpm) and...

Fetal cardiomyopathy

Fetal cardiomyopathy refers to a very rare situation where a cardiomyopathy occurs in utero. It is often a diagnosis of exclusion where, by definition, there is an absence of an underlying congenital cardiac morphological anomaly. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is variable with the high ...

Fetal supraventricular tachycardia

Fetal supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) is considered the most common type of fetal tachyarrhythmia and can account for 60-90% of such cases. Pathology It has a typical ventricular rate of 230-280 beats per minute (bpm) 1 and is often associated with an accessory AV conduction pathway. There ...

Epicardial pacing wires

Epicardial pacing wires or temporary pacing wires (TPW) allow rapid commencement of atrial and/or ventricular pacing in the event of a perioperative cardiac arrhythmia that has the potential to cause significant hemodynamic compromise. They are usually inserted during open heart surgery, and es...

Fetal pericardial effusion

Fetal pericardial effusions occur when there is an accumulation of pericardial fluid in utero. In order to be considered abnormal, it is generally accepted that the pericardial fluid thickness should be >2 mm ref. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is at ~ 2% of pregnancies 8. Pathology As...

Delayed myocardial enhancement

Delayed myocardial enhancement, as seen on cardiac MRI, occurs when gadolinium contrast material seeps into fibrotic or necrotic myocardial tissue. It is due to a number of etiologies, and has variable appearances. subendocardial enhancement indicates an ischemic etiology transmural enhancemen...

Fetal bradycardia

Fetal bradycardia refers to an abnormally low fetal heart rate, a potentially ominous finding. A sustained first trimester heart rate below 100 beats per minute (bpm) is generally considered bradycardic. The average fetal heart rate changes during pregnancy, however, and some consider the lower ...

Down syndrome

Down syndrome (or trisomy 21) is the most common trisomy and also the commonest chromosomal disorder. It is a major cause of intellectual disability, and also has numerous multisystem manifestations. Epidemiology The approximate worldwide incidence is approximately 1 in 800 live births 15. The...

Tetralogy of fallot (mnemonic)

A mnemonic for the underlying anatomic defects in tetralogy of Fallot is: PROVe Mnemonic P: pulmonary stenosis R: right ventricular hypertrophy O: overriding aorta V: ventricular septal defect

Fetal tachyarrhythmia

Fetal tachyarrhythmia refers to an irregular increase in fetal heart rate. Epidemiology Depending on its exact definition, the prevalence rate is thought to be around 0.5-1% of pregnancies. Associations associated congenital cardiac anomalies can occur but are relatively rare ( ~7% 7) Cli...

Fetal tachycardia

Fetal tachycardia is an abnormal increase in the fetal heart rate. It is variably defined as a heart rate above 160-180 beats per minute (bpm) and typically ranges between 170-220 bpm (higher rates can occur with tachyarrhythmias). Epidemiology The estimated prevalence is ~0.4-1% of pregnancie...

Cardiac chamber enlargement

Cardiac chamber enlargement can be recognized by cardiac contour changes, new or different interfaces with adjacent lung, and/or displacement of adjacent mediastinal structures. These are discussed separately: right atrial enlargement right ventricular enlargement left atrial enlargement lef...

Left atrial enlargement

Left atrial enlargement (LAE) may result from many conditions, either congenital or acquired. It has some characteristic findings on a frontal chest radiograph. CT or MRI may also be used for diagnosis. Clinical presentation An enlarged left atrium can have many clinical implications, such as:...

Left ventricular enlargement

Left ventricular enlargement can be the result of a number of conditions, including: pressure overload hypertension aortic stenosis volume overload aortic regurgitation mitral regurgitation wall abnormalities left ventricular aneurysm hypertrophic cardiomyopathy / dilated cardiomyopathy...

Right ventricular enlargement

Right ventricular enlargement (also known as right ventricular dilatation (RVD)) can be the result of a number of conditions, including: pulmonary valve stenosis pulmonary arterial hypertension atrial septal defect (ASD) ventricular septal defect (VSD) tricuspid regurgitation dilated card...

Right atrial enlargement

Right atrial (RA) enlargement is less common, and harder to delineate on chest radiograph, than left atrial (LA) enlargement. Pathology Etiology Enlargement of the right atrium (RA) can result from a number of conditions, including: raised right ventricular pressures pulmonary arterial hype...

Ectopia cordis

Ectopia cordis is an extremely rare congenital malformation where the heart is located partially or totally outside the thoracic cavity. The four main ectopic positions are: adjacent to the thorax: ~60% abdominal: 15-30% thoracoabdominal: 7-18% cervical: ~3% Epidemiology The incidence is ...

Cardiac curriculum

The cardiac curriculum is one of our curriculum articles and aims to be a collection of articles that represent the core cardiac knowledge. Definition Topics pertaining to the heart and pericardium, but excluding the mediastinum (see: chest curriculum) and great vessels (see: vascular curricul...

Cardiomegaly

Cardiomegaly is a catch-all term to refer to enlargement of the heart, and should not be confused with causes of enlargement of the cardiomediastinal outline, or enlargement of the cardiac silhouette. Pathology Etiology There are many etiologies for cardiomegaly: congestive heart failure...

Intracardiac thrombus

Intracardiac thrombi are seen in a variety of clinical settings and can result in severe morbidity or even death from embolic events. They can occur following myocardial infarction with ventricular thrombus formation, or with atrial fibrillation and mitral stenosis where atrial thrombi predomina...

Cardiac amyloidosis

Cardiac amyloidosis (plural: amyloidoses) is a significant source of morbidity among patients with systemic amyloidosis and is the most common cause of restrictive cardiomyopathy outside the tropics. Pathology Amyloidosis represents the extra-cellular deposition of insoluble fibrillar proteina...

Cardiac tamponade

Cardiac tamponade is the result of an accumulation of fluid, pus, blood, gas, or benign or malignant neoplastic tissue within the pericardial cavity, which can occur either rapidly or gradually over time, but eventually, results in impaired cardiac output. This is to be distinguished from a per...

Rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune multisystemic inflammatory disease that affects many organs but predominantly attacks the synovial tissues and joints. Epidemiology The overall prevalence is 0.5-1% and the disease is 2-3 times more common in women 1. Onset is generally in adu...

Congenital coronary artery anomalies

Congenital coronary artery anomalies (CCAAs) are not common, found only in ~1% (range 0.1-2%) of patients 1,3. The most important finding to look for is the "malignant" course of anomalous coronary artery, i.e. does the artery run between big pulsating objects - right ventricular outflow tract ...

Anomalous course of coronary arteries

Anomalous course of a coronary artery is a type of congenital coronary artery anomaly. It may represent a benign and incidental finding, but rarely it is a malignant course predisposing patients to life-threatening myocardial ischemia or arrhythmias, depending on where the artery runs. Clinica...

Pneumopericardium

Pneumopericardium represents gas (usually air) within the pericardium, thus surrounding the heart. Pathology Etiology Underlying causes include: positive pressure ventilation thoracic surgery/pericardial fluid drainage penetrating trauma blunt trauma (rare) infectious pericarditis with ...

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