Bronchiectasis
Bronchiectasis (plural: bronchiectases) is defined as an irreversible abnormal dilatation of the bronchial tree. It has a variety of underlying causes, with a common etiology of chronic inflammation. High-resolution CT is the most accurate modality for diagnosis.
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Epidemiology
As there are many causes of bronchiectasis, which may occur at essentially any age, no single demographic is particularly involved. Two groups make up the majority of cases: post-infectious and cystic fibrosis 3.
Clinical presentation
Bronchiectasis typically presents with recurrent chest infections, productive cough more than 8 weeks, production of copious amounts of sputum, and hemoptysis.
Pathology
Etiology
Bronchiectasis is the common response of bronchi to a combination of inflammation and obstruction/impaired clearance. Causes include 1-7,9,17,21:
- idiopathic (most common)
- impaired host defenses
- cystic fibrosis (CF) (most common cause in children)
- primary ciliary dyskinesia, e.g. Kartagener syndrome, Young syndrome
- primary immunodeficiency disorder, e.g. common variable immunodeficiency, hypogammaglobulinaemia, chronic granulomatous disease
- HIV/AIDS 15,16
- postinfective (most common known non-CF cause in adults)
- bacterial pneumonia and bronchitis, e.g S. aureus, H. influenzae, B. pertussis
- mycobacterial infection, e.g. tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex
- allergic and autoimmune
- allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA)
- connective tissue disease, e.g. rheumatoid arthritis 6, Sjögren syndrome, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) 7
- inflammatory bowel disease
- obstruction
- severe obstructive lung disease: asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
- neoplasm, e.g. bronchial carcinoid, bronchogenic carcinoma
- inhaled foreign bodies
- congenital
- bronchial tree malformations, e.g. Mounier-Kuhn syndrome, Williams-Campbell syndrome, pulmonary sequestration, bronchial atresia
- alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency
- others
- chronic aspiration
- traction bronchiectasis due to diffuse lung disease, e.g. pulmonary fibrosis
- radiation-induced lung disease
- post-transplantation
A mnemonic to remember common causes is CAPT Kangaroo has Mounier-Kuhn.
Subtypes
According to macroscopic morphology, three types have been described, which also represent a spectrum of severity 8:
-
cylindrical bronchiectasis
- bronchi have a uniform caliber, do not taper and have parallel walls (tram track sign and signet ring sign)
- commonest form 14
-
varicose bronchiectasis
- relatively uncommon
- beaded appearances where dilated bronchi have interspersed sites of relative narrowing
-
cystic bronchiectasis
- severe form with cyst-like bronchi that extend to the pleural surface
- air-fluid levels are commonly present
According to one study, the relative prevalence of bronchiectatic changes were 14:
- cylindrical: ~ 47%
- varicose: ~ 9.9%
- cystic: ~ 45.1%
- multiple types: ~ 24.3%
Additionally, bronchiectasis can result from the traction of fibrotic lung surrounding an airway. This is known as traction bronchiectasis.
There is dilation of bronchi and bronchioles due to elastic tissue and smooth muscle destruction.
Radiographic features
Plain radiograph
Chest x-rays are usually abnormal but are inadequate in the diagnosis or quantification of bronchiectasis. Tram-track opacities are seen in cylindrical bronchiectasis, and air-fluid levels may be seen in cystic bronchiectasis. Overall there appears to be an increase in bronchovascular markings, and bronchi seen end-on may appear as ring shadows 8. Pulmonary vasculature appears ill-defined, thought to represent peribronchovascular fibrosis 8,9.
CT
CT and HRCT especially excel at demonstrating the airways and is able to a greater or lesser degree to distinguish some of the various underlying causes.
A number of features are helpful in diagnosing bronchiectasis 8,9:
- bronchus visualized within 1 cm of the pleural surface
- especially true of lung adjacent to costal pleura
- most helpful sign for early cylindrical change
- lack of tapering
- increased bronchoarterial ratio 9
- diameter of a bronchus should measure approximately 0.65-1.0 times that of the adjacent pulmonary artery branch
- between 1 and 1.5 may be seen in normal individuals, especially those living at high altitude
- greater than 1.5 indicates bronchiectasis
A number of ancillary findings are also recognized:
- bronchial wall thickening: normally wall of bronchus should be less than half the width of the accompanying pulmonary artery branch
- mucoid impaction
- air-trapping and mosaic perfusion
- bronchial arterial enlargement
Signs described on CT include:
Treatment and prognosis
In general, the treatment of bronchiectasis is medical and involves promoting sputum clearance, using positional physiotherapy, and early and aggressive treatment of pulmonary infections. In some cases, chronic prophylactic administration of antibiotics may be required.
In cases where bronchiectasis is severe and significant morbidity is present, surgical resection of the affected lobe may be of the benefit provided adequate respiratory reserve exists.
In cases where both lungs are extensively involved (e.g. cystic fibrosis) lung transplantation can be considered 10.
Differential diagnosis
The differential is in two parts:
- causes of a particular distribution of bronchiectasis
- mimics of bronchiectasis
Causes of a particular distribution of bronchiectasis
- central bronchiectasis
- upper lobe bronchiectasis
- middle lobe bronchiectasis
- lower lobe bronchiectasis
Mimics of bronchiectasis
Conditions that may mimic cystic bronchiectasis include 8:
Related Radiopaedia articles
Chest
- imaging techniques
-
chest x-ray
-
approach
- adult
- pediatric
- neonatal
-
airspace opacification
- differential diagnoses of airspace opacification
- lobar consolidation
-
atelectasis
- mechanism-based
- morphology-based
- lobar lung collapse
- chest x-ray in the exam setting
- cardiomediastinal contour
- chest radiograph zones
- tracheal air column
- fissures
- normal chest x-ray appearance of the diaphragm
- nipple shadow
-
lines and stripes
- anterior junction line
- posterior junction line
- right paratracheal stripe
- left paratracheal stripe
- posterior tracheal stripe/tracheo-esophageal stripe
- posterior wall of bronchus intermedius
- right paraspinal line
- left paraspinal line
- aortic-pulmonary stripe
- aortopulmonary window
- azygo-esophageal recess
- spaces
- signs
- air bronchogram
- big rib sign
- Chang sign
- Chen sign
- coin lesion
- continuous diaphragm sign
- dense hilum sign
- double contour sign
- egg-on-a-string sign
- extrapleural sign
- finger in glove sign
- flat waist sign
- Fleischner sign
- ginkgo leaf sign
- Golden S sign
- Hampton hump
- haystack sign
- hilum convergence sign
- hilum overlay sign
- Hoffman-Rigler sign
- holly leaf sign
- incomplete border sign
- juxtaphrenic peak sign
- Kirklin sign
- medial stripe sign
- melting ice cube sign
- more black sign
- Naclerio V sign
- Palla sign
- pericardial fat tag sign
- Shmoo sign
- silhouette sign
- snowman sign
- spinnaker sign
- steeple sign
- straight left heart border sign
- third mogul sign
- tram-track sign
- walking man sign
- water bottle sign
- wave sign
- Westermark sign
-
approach
- HRCT
-
chest x-ray
- airways
- bronchitis
- small airways disease
-
bronchiectasis
- broncho-arterial ratio
- related conditions
- differentials by distribution
- narrowing
-
tracheal stenosis
- diffuse tracheal narrowing (differential)
-
bronchial stenosis
- diffuse airway narrowing (differential)
-
tracheal stenosis
- diverticula
- pulmonary edema
-
interstitial lung disease (ILD)
- drug-induced interstitial lung disease
-
hypersensitivity pneumonitis
- acute hypersensitivity pneumonitis
- subacute hypersensitivity pneumonitis
- chronic hypersensitivity pneumonitis
- etiology
- bird fancier's lung: pigeon fancier's lung
- farmer's lung
- cheese workers' lung
- bagassosis
- mushroom worker’s lung
- malt worker’s lung
- maple bark disease
- hot tub lung
- wine maker’s lung
- woodsman’s disease
- thatched roof lung
- tobacco grower’s lung
- potato riddler’s lung
- summer-type pneumonitis
- dry rot lung
- machine operator’s lung
- humidifier lung
- shower curtain disease
- furrier’s lung
- miller’s lung
- lycoperdonosis
- saxophone lung
-
idiopathic interstitial pneumonia (mnemonic)
- acute interstitial pneumonia (AIP)
- cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (COP)
- desquamative interstitial pneumonia (DIP)
- non-specific interstitial pneumonia (NSIP)
- idiopathic pleuroparenchymal fibroelastosis
- lymphoid interstitial pneumonia (LIP)
- respiratory bronchiolitis–associated interstitial lung disease (RB-ILD)
- usual interstitial pneumonia / idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (UIP/IPF)
-
pneumoconioses
- fibrotic
- non-fibrotic
-
lung cancer
-
non-small-cell lung cancer
-
adenocarcinoma
- pre-invasive tumors
- minimally invasive tumors
- invasive tumors
- variants of invasive carcinoma
- described imaging features
- adenosquamous carcinoma
- large cell carcinoma
- primary sarcomatoid carcinoma of the lung
- squamous cell carcinoma
- salivary gland-type tumors
-
adenocarcinoma
- pulmonary neuroendocrine tumors
- preinvasive lesions
-
lung cancer invasion patterns
- tumor spread through air spaces (STAS)
- presence of non-lepidic patterns such as acinar, papillary, solid, or micropapillary
- myofibroblastic stroma associated with invasive tumor cells
- pleural invasion
- vascular invasion
- tumors by location
- benign neoplasms
- pulmonary metastases
- lung cancer screening
- lung cancer staging
-
non-small-cell lung cancer